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C-OPHRIGHT DSPOSm 



COLLEGE TEACHING 

STUDIES IN 

METHODS OF TEACHING IN 

THE COLLEGE 

Edited by 
PAUL KLAPPER, Ph.D. 

Associate Professor of Education 
The College of the City of New York 

with an 

Introduction by 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, LL.D. 

President of Columbia University 




Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

1920 



WORLD BOOK COMPANY ^ 

THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE ^^ 

Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson Op / 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YoRK VN^ 

2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago \ 

A treasure of wisdom is stored in the col- 
leges of the land. The teachers are the 
custodians of knowledge that makes life 
free and progressive. This book aims to 
make the college teacher effective in hand- 
ing down this heritage of knowledge, rich 
and vital, that will develop in youth the 
power of right thinking and the courage 
of right living. Thus College Teaching 
carries out the ideal of service as ex- 
pressed in the motto of the World Book 
Company, " Books that Apply the World's 
Knowledge to the World's Needs " 



APk -3 1920 



Copyright, 1920', by World Book Company 

Copyright in Great Britain 

All rights reserved 



©CI.A566347 

71 r 



PREFACE 

THE student of general problems of education or of 
elementary education finds an extensive literature of 
varying worth. In the last decade our secondary schools 
have undergone radical reorganization and have assumed 
new functions. A rich literature on every phase of the 
high school is rapidly developing to keep pace with the 
needs and the progress of secondary education. The litera- 
ture on college education in general and college pedagogy 
in particular is surprisingly undeveloped. This dearth is 
not caused by the absence of problem, for indeed there is 
room for much improvement in the organization, the ad- 
ministration, and the pedagogy of the college. Investiga- 
tors of these problems have been considerably discouraged 
by the facts they have gathered. This volume is conceived 
in the hope of stimulating an interest in the quality of 
college teaching and initiating a scientific study of college 
pedagogy. The field is almost virgin, and the need for 
constructive programs is acute. We therefore ask for our 
effort the indulgence that is usually accorded a pioneer. 

In this age of specialization of study it is evident that 
no college teacher, however wide his experience and ex- 
tensive his education, can speak with authority on the 
teaching of all the subjects in the college curriculum, or 
even of all the major ones. For this reason this volume is 
the product of a cooperating authorship. The editor devotes 
himself to the study of general methods of teaching that 
apply to almost all subjects and to most teaching situa- 
tions. In addition, he coordinates the work of the other 
contributors. He realizes that there exists among college 
professors an active hostility to the study of pedagogy. 
The professors feel that one who knows his subject can 
teach it. The contributors have been purposely selected 
in order to dispel this hostility. They are, one and all, 
men of undisputed scholarship who have realized the need 
of a mode of presentation that will make their knowledge 
alive. 

iii 



iv Preface 

Books of multiple authorship often possess too wide a 
diversity of viewpoints. The reader comes away with no 
underlying thought and no controlling principles. To 
overcome this defect, so common in books of this type, a 
tentative outline was formulated, setting forth a desirable 
mode of treating, in the confines of one chapter, the teach- 
ing of any subject in the college curriculum. This outline 
was submitted to all contributors for critical analysis and 
constructive criticism. The original plan was later modi- 
fied in accordance with the suggestions of the contributors. 
This final outline, which follows, was then sent to the con- 
tributors with the full understanding that each writer was 
free to make such modifications as his specialty demanded 
and his judgment dictated. This outline is followed in 
most of the chapters and gives the book that unifying ele- 
ment necessary in any book and vital in a work of so large 
a cooperating authorship. 

The editor begs to acknowledge his indebtedness to the 
many contributors who have given generously of their time 
and their labor with no hope of compensation beyond the 
ultimate appreciation of those college teachers who are 
eager to learn from the experience of others so that they 
may the better serve their students. 

TENTATIVE OUTLINE FOR THE TEACHING 
OF IN THE COLLEGE 

L Aim of Subject X in the College Curriculum: 

Is it taught for disciplinary values? What are they? 

Is it taught for cultural reasons? 

Is it taught to give necessary information? 

Is it taught to prepare for professional studies? 

Is the aim single or eclectic? Do the aims vary for different 
groups of students? Does this apply to all the courses in 
your specialty? How does the aim govern the methods of 
teaching? 
II. Place of the Subject in the College Curriculum: 

In what year or years should it be taught? 

What part of the college course^ in terms of time or cred- 
its — should be allotted to it? 



Preface v 

What is the practice in other colleges? 

What course or courses in this subject should be part of the 
general curriculum or be prescribed for students in art, 
in science, in modern languages, or in the preprofessional 
or professional groups? 

III. Organization of the Subject in the College Course: 

Desired sequence of courses in this subject. 

What is the basis of this sequence? Gradation of successive 
difficulties or logical sequence of facts? 

Should these courses be elective or prescribed? All pre- 
scribed? For all groups of students? 

In what years should the elective work be offered? 

IV. Discussion of Methods of Teaching this Subject: 

Place and relative worth of lecture method, laboratory work, 
recitations, research, case method, field work, assignment 
from a single text or reference reading, etc. 
Discussion of such problems as the following: 
Shall the first course in chemistry be a general and extensive 
course summing up the scope of chemistry, its function in 
organic and inorganic nature, with no laboratory work 
other than the experimentation by the instructor? 
Should students in the social sciences study the subject de- 
ductively from a book or should the book be postponed and 
the instructor present a series of problems from the social 
life of the student so that the analysis of these may lead 
the student to formulate many of the generalizations that 
are given early in a textbook course? 
Should college mathematics be presented as a series of sub- 
jects, e.g., algebra (advanced), solid geometry, trigonom- 
etry, analytical geometry, calculus, etc.? Would it be 
better to present the subject as a single and unified whole 
in two or three semesters? 
Should a student study his mathematics as it is developed 
in his book, — viz., as an intellectual product of a matured 
mind familiar with the subject, — or should the subject 
grow gradually in a more or less unorganized form from 
a series of mechanical, engineering, building, nautical, sur- 
veying, and structural problems that can be found in the 
life and environment of the student? 
V. Moot Questions in the Teaching of this Subject. 
VI. How judge whether the subject has been of worth to the stu- 
dent? 
How test whether the aims of this subject have been realized? 
How test how much the student has carried away? What 
means, methods, and indices exist aside from the traditional 
examination ? 



vi Preface 

VII. Bibliography on the Pedagogy of this Subject as Far as It Ap- 
plies to College Teaching. The aim of the bibliography 
should be to give worth-while contributions that present 
elaborations of what is here presented or points of view and 
modes of procedure that differ from those here set forth. 

Paul Klapper 
The College of the City of New York 



CONTENTS 

_ PAGE 

Introduction xiii 

By Nicholas Murray Butler, Ph.D., LL.D. 
President of Columbia University. Author of The 
Meaning of Education, True and False Democracy, 
etc. Editor of Educational Review 

PART ONE — THE INTRODUCTORY STUDIES 

CHAPTER 

I History and Present Tendencies of the 

American College 3 

By Stephen Pierce Duggan, Ph.D. Professor of 
Education, The College of the City of New York. 
Author of A Student's History of Education 

II Professional Training for College 

Teaching 31 

By Sidney E. Mezes, Ph.D., LL.D. President of 
The College of the City of New York. Formerly 
President of University of Texas. Author of 
Ethics, Descriptive and Explanatory 

III General Principles of College Teaching 43 

By Paul Klapper, Ph.D. Associate Professor of 
Education, The College of the City of New York. 
Author of Principles of Educational Practice, The 
Teaching of English, etc. 

PART TWO — THE SCIENCES 

IV The Teaching of Biology 85 

By T. W. Galloway, Ph.D., Litt.D. Professor 
of Zoology, Beloit College. Author of Textbook 
of Zoology, Biology of Sex for Parents and Teach- 
ers, Use of Motives in Moral Education, etc. 

V The Teaching of Chemistry . . . . 110 

By Louis Kahlenberg, Ph.D. Director of the 
Course in Chemistry and Professor of Chemistry, 
University of Wisconsin. Author of Outlines of 
Chemistry, Laboratory Exercises in Chemistry, 
Chemistry Analysis, Chemistry and Its Relation to 
Daily Life, etc. 

VI The Teaching of Physics 126 

By Harvey B. Lemon, Ph.D. Assistant Professor 
of Physics, University of Chicago 
vii 



viii Contents 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII The Teaching of Geology 142 

By T. C. Chamberlin, Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Pro- 
fessor and Head of Department of Geology and 
Director of Walker Museum, University of Chicago. 
Author of Geology of Wisconsin, The Origin of the 
Earth. Editor of The Journal of Geology 

VIII The Teaching of Mathematics . . . 161 

By G. A. Miller, Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics, 
University of Illinois. Author of Determinants, 
Mathematical Monographs (co-author). Theory and 
Applications of Groups of Finite Order (co-author), 
' Historical Introduction to the Mathematical Lit- 
erature, etc. Co-editor of American Year Book 
and Encyclopedic des Sciences Mathematiques 

IX Physical Education in the College . . 183 

By Thomas A. Storey, M.D., Ph.D. Professor of 
Hygiene, The College of the City of New York. 
State Inspector of Physical Training, New York. 
Secretary-General, Fourth International Congress of 
School Hygiene, .Buffalo, 1913. Executive-Secre- 
tary, United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene 
Board. Author of various contributions to standard 
works on physiology, hygiene, and physical training 

PART THREE — THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 

X The Teaching of Economics .... 217 

By Frank A. Fetter, Ph.D., LL.D, Professor of 
Political Economy, Princeton University. Author 
of Economic Principles and Modern Economic 
Problems 

XI The Teaching of Sociology .... 241 

Arthur J. Todd, Ph.D. Professor of Sociology 
and Director of the Training Course for Social and 
Civic Work, University of Minnesota. Author of 
The Primitive Family as an Educational Factor, 
Theories of Social Progress 

XII The Teaching of History 

A. American History 256 

By Henry W. Elson, A.M., Litt.D. President of 
Thiel College. Formerly Professor of History, Ohio 
University. Author of History of the United States, 
The Story of the Old World (with Cornelia E. 
MacMullan), etc. 



Contents ix 

CHAPTER PAGE 

B. Modern European History . . . . 263 

By Edward Krehbiel, Ph.D. Professor of Modern 
European History, Leland Stanford University. 
Author of The Interdict, Nationalism, War and 
Society 

XIII The Teaching of Poutical Science . . 279 

By Charles Grove Haines, Ph.D. Professor of 
Government, University of Texas. Author of Con- 
flict over Judicial Powers in the United States 
prior to 1870, The American Doctrine of Judicial 
Supremacy, The Teaching of Government (Report 
of Committee on Instruction, Political Science Asso- 
ciation) 

XIV The Teaching of Philosophy . . . . 302 

By Frank Thilly, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Phi- 
losophy, Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, 
Cornell University. Author of Introduction to 
Ethics, History of Philosophy 

XV The Teaching of Ethics 320 

By Henry Neumann, Ph.D. Leader of the Brook- 
lyn Society for Ethical Culture. Formerly of the 
Department of Education, The College of the City 
of New York. Author of Moral Values in Sec- 
ondary Education 

XVI The Teaching of Psychology .... 334 
By Robert S. Woodworth, Ph.D. Professor of 
Psychology, Columbia University. Author of Dyna- 
mic Psychology, he Mouvement, Care of the Body, 
Elements of Physiological Psychology (with George 
Trumbull Ladd) 

XVII The Teaching of Education 

A. Teaching the History of Education . 347 
By Herman H. Horne, Ph.D. (Harvard). Pro- 
fessor of the History of Education and the History 

of Philosophy, New York University. Author of 
The 'Philosophy of Education, The Psychological 
Principles of Education, Free Will and Human- 
Responsibility, etc. 

B. Teaching Educational Theory . , . 359 
By Frederick E. Bolton, Ph.D. Dean of the Col- 
lege of Education, University of Washington. Au- 
thor of Principles of Education, The Secondary 
School System of Germany 



X 



Contents 



PART FOUR — THE LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XVIII The Teaching of English Literature . 379 

By Caleb T. Winchester, L.H.D. Professor of 
English Literature, Wesleyan University. Author 
of Some Principles of Literary Criticism, A Group 
of English Essayists, William Wordsworth: How 
to -Know Him, etc. 

XIX The Teaching of English Composition . 389 

By Henry Seidel Canby, Ph.D. Adviser in Liter- 
ary Composition, Yale University. Author of The 
Short Story in English, College Sons and College 
Fathers, etc. 

XX The Teaching of the Classics .... 404 

By William K. Prentice, Ph.D. Professor of 
Greek, Princeton University. Author of Greek and 
Latin Inscriptions in Syria 

XXI The Teaching of the Romance Lan- 
guages 424 

By William A. Nitze, Ph.D. Professor and Head 
of Department of Romance Languages, University 
of Chicago. Author of The Grail Romance, Glas- 
tonbury and the Holy Grail, Handbook of French 
Phonetics, etc. Contributor to New International 
Encyclopedia 



XXII The Teaching of German 



440 



By E. Prokosch, Ph.D. Late Professor of Ger- 
manic Languages, University of Texas. Author of 
Teaching of German in Secondary Schools, Phonetic 
Lessons in German, Sounds and History of the 
German Language, etc. 



PART FIVE — THE ARTS 
XXIII The Teaching of Music 457 

By Edward Dickinson, Litt.D. Professor of His- 
tory and Criticism of Music, Oberlin College. Au- 
thor of Music in the History of the Western 
Church, The Study of the History of Music, The 
Education of a Music Lover, Music and the Higher 
Education 



Contents 



XI 






CHAPTER PAGE 

XXIV The Teaching of Art 475 

By Holmes Smith, A.M. Professor of Drawing 
and the History of Art, Washington University. 
Author of various articles in magazines on art 
topics 



PART SIX — VOCATIONAL SUBJECTS 

XXV The Teaching of Engineering Subjects . 501 

By Ira O. Baker, C.E., D. Eng'g. Professor of 
Civil Engineering, University of Illinois. Author 
of Treatise on Masonry Construction, Treatise on 
Roads and Pavements 

XXVI The Teaching of Mechanical Drawing . 525 

By James D. Phillips, B.S. Asisstant Dean and 
Professor of Drawing, College of Engineering, Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin. Author of Elements of De- 
scriptive Geometry (with A. V. Millar) , Mechanical 
Drawing for Secondary Schools (with F. 0. Craw- - 
shaw), Mechanical Drawing for Colleges and Uni- 
versities (with H. D. Orth) 

and Herbert D. Orth, B.S. Assistant Professor of 
Mechanical Drawing and Descriptive Geometry, 
University of Wisconsin. Author of Mechanical 
Drawing for Colleges and Universities (with J. D. 
Phillips) 



XXVII 



XXVIII 



The Teaching of Journalism . . . . 
By Talcott Williams, A.M., LL.D., Lttt.D. Di- 
rector, School of Journalism, Columbia University 



533 



Index . 



Business Education 555 

By Frederick B. Robinson, Ph.D. Professor of 
Economics and Dean of the School of Business and 
Civic Administration, College of the City of New 
York 

■ 577 



INTRODUCTION 

IT is characteristic of the American people to have pro- 
found faith in the power of education. Since Colonial 
days the American college has played a large part in 
American life and has trained an overwhelming propor- 
tion of the leaders of American opinion. There was a time 
when the American college was a relatively simple institu- 
tion of a uniform type, but that time has passed. The 
term " college " is now used in a variety of significations, 
a number of which are very new and very modern indeed. 
Some of these uses of the term are quite indefensible, as 
when one speaks of a college of engineering, or of law, 
or of medicine, or of journalism, or of architecture. Such 
use of the word merely confuses and makes impossible 
clear thinking as to educational institutions and educational 
aims. 

The term " college " can be properly used only of an 
institution which offers training in the liberal arts and 
sciences to youth who have completed a standard secondary 
school course of study. The purpose of college teaching 
is to lay the foundation for intelligent and effective special- 
ization later on, to open the mind to new interpretations 
and new understandings both of man and of nature, and to 
give instruction in those standards of judgment and ap- 
preciation, the possession and application of which are the 
marks of the truly educated and cultivated man. The size 
of a college is a matter of small importance, except that 
under modern conditions a large college and one in im- 
mediate contact with the life of a university is almost cer- 
tain to command larger intellectual resources than is an 
institution of a different type. The important thing about 
a college is its spirit, its clearness of aim, its steadiness of 
purpose, and the opportunity which it affords for direct 
personal contact between teacher and student. Given these, 
the question of size is unimportant. 

There was a time when it was felt, probably correctly, 
that a satisfactory college training could be had by requir- 

xiii 



xiv Introduction 



ing all students to follow a single prescribed course of 
study. At that time, college students were drawn almost 
exclusively from families and homes of a single type or 
kind. Their purposes in after-life were similar, and their 
range of intellectual sympathy, while intense, was rather 
narrow. The last fifty years have changed all this. Col- 
lege students are now drawn from families and homes of 
every conceivable type and kind. Their purposes in after- 
life are very different, while new subjects of study have 
been multiplied many fold. The old and useful tradition 
of Latin, Greek, and mathematics, together with a little 
history and literature, as the chief elements in a college 
course of study, had to give way when first the natural 
sciences, and then the social sciences, claimed attention 
and when even these older subjects of study were them- 
selves subdivided into many parts. 

These changes forced a change in the old-fashioned pro- 
gram of college study, and led to the various substitutes 
for it that now exist. Whether a college prefers the elective 
system of study, or the group system, or some other method 
of combining instruction that is regarded as fundamental 
with other instruction that is regarded as less so, the fact 
is that all these are simply different kinds of attempt to 
meet a new condition which is the natural result of intel- 
lectual and economic changes. Just now the college is in a 
state of transition. It is not at all clear precisely what its 
status will be a generation hence, or how far present 
tendencies may continue to increase, or how far they may 
be counteracted bv a swing of the pendulum in the op- 
posite direction. Therefore this is a time to describe rather 
than to dogmatize, and it is description which is the char- 
acteristic mark of the important series of papers which 
constitute the several chapters in the present volume. 

A careful reading of these papers is commended not only 
to the great army of college teachers and college students, 
but to that still greater army of those who, whether as 
alumni or as parents or as citizens, are deeply concerned 
with the preservation of the influence and character of the 



Introduction xv 



American college for its effect upon our national standards 
of thought and action. 

American colleges are of two distinct types, and it may 
be that the future has in store a different position for each 
type. The true distinction between colleges is according as 
they are separate or are incorporated in a university system, 
and not at all as to whether they are large or small. A 
separate college, such as Amherst or Beloit or Grinnell or 
Pomona, has its own peculiar problems of support and 
administration. The university college, on the other hand, 
such as Columbia or Harvard or Chicago or the college of 
any state university, has quite different problems of sup- 
port and of administration. It is not unlikely that the dis- 
tinction between these two types of college will become 
more sharply marked as years go by, and that eventually 
they will appear to be two distinct institutions rather than 
two types of one and the same institution. 

Meanwhile, we have to deal with the college as it is, 
in all its varied forms, but characteristically American 
whatever its form. The American college has little or no 
resemblance to the English Public School or to the French 
Lycee or to the German Gymnasium. It is something more 
than any one of these, and at the same time something less. 
It differs from them all very much as the conditions of 
American life differ from those of English or of French 
or of German life. The college may or may not involve 
residence, but when it does involve residence, it is at its 
best. It is then that the largest amount of carefully ordered 
and stimulating influence can be brought to bear upon the 
daily life of growing and expanding youth, and it is then 
and only then, that youth can get the inestimable benefits 
which follow from daily and hourly contact with others of 
like age, like tastes, like habits, and like purposes. Indeed, 
it has often been said that the college gives more through 
its opportunities which attach to residence, than through 
its opportunities which attach to instruction. 

Almost every conceivable problem that can arise in col- 
lege life and college work, is discussed in the following 



xvi Introduction 



pages. It is now coming to be understood that the health 
of the college student is as much a matter of concern as his 
instruction, and that a college is not doing its full duty by 
those who seek its doors, when it merely provides libraries, 
laboratories, and skillful teachers. It must also provide 
for such conditions of residence, of food, of exercise, and 
of frequent medical examination and inspection, as shall 
protect and preserve the health of those who come to take 
advantage of its instruction. 

There is one other point which should not be overlooked, 
and that is the literally immense influence exerted in 
America by that solidarity of college sentiment and college 
opinion which is kept alive by organizations of former col- 
lege students scattered throughout the land. This, again, 
is a peculiarly American development, and it serves to unite 
the college and public sentiment much more closely than 
any formal tie could possibly do. Indeed, it illustrates 
how completely the American people claim the college as 
their own. The man or woman who has once been a col- 
lege student never ceases to be a member of that particular 
college or to labor to extend its influence and to increase 
its usefulness. 

Every reader of this volume should approach It in a 
spirit of sympathetic understanding of American higher 
education, and of the college as the oldest instrument of 
that higher education and still one of the chief elements 
in it. 

Nicholas Murray Butler 

Columbia University 



PART ONE 
The Introductory Studies 

CHAPTER 

I History and Present Tendencies of the 

American College Stephen P. Duggan 

II Professional Training for College Teaching 

Sidney E. Mezes 

III General Principles of College Teaching 

Paul Klapper 



I 

HISTORY AND PRESENT TENDENCIES OF THE 
AMERICAN COLLEGE 



T 



1. THE COLONIAL PERIOD 
HE American colonies were founded chiefly by English- ^^® ?^^ 

doin.iji.£Liic6 

men who came to America for a variety of reasons, of the 

Some of these were economic and political, but the most ^^^ifious 

r •> motive 

important of their reasons was the desire to practice their 
religious convictions with greater freedom than was per- 
mitted at home. Apart from the state religion, however, all 
the colonists were animated by a love for English institu- 
tions which they transplanted to the New World, and among 
these institutions were the grammar school and the college. 
Wherever the Reformation had been chiefly a religious 
rather than a political and ecclesiastical movement, the in- 
terest in education and the effect upon it were direct and 
immediate. This was true where Calvinism prevailed, as in 
the Netherlands, Scotland, and among the Puritans in Eng- 
land. Hence it is natural to find that the first effective 
movements in America toward the establishment of educa- 
tional institutions, both elementary and higher, should have 
taken place in New England. 

A large proportion of university graduates were included 
among the settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. They 
were chiefly graduates of Cambridge, which had always been 
religiously more tolerant than Oxford, and especially of 
Emmanuel College, which was the stronghold of Puritanism 
at Cambridge. It was natural that these men, leaders in 
the aff"airs of the colony, should want to establish a New 
Cambridge University, but it is astonishing that they were 
able to do so as early as 1636, only six years after the 
founding of this colony. Two years later the college was 
named after John Harvard, a clergyman and a graduate 
of Emmanuel, who upon his death bequeathed half his estate 

3 



4 College Teaching 

and all his fine library of three hundred volumes to the 
college. The religious motive predominated in the found- 
ing of Harvard, for though the colonists longed " to advance 
learning and perpetuate it to posterity," they were actuated 
chiefly by dread " to leave an illiterate ministry to. the 
churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust." 

Harvard remained the sole instrument in the colonies 
for that purpose for more than half a century. In 1693 the 
College of William and Mary was founded in Virginia, with 
the most generous endowment of any pre-Revolutionary col- 
lege, generous because of the help received from the mother 
country. It was the child of the Church of England, and its 
president and its professors had to subscribe to the Thirty- 
nine Articles. Subscription to a religious creed was also 
demanded of the president and tutors of the third American 
college, founded in 1701. This Collegiate Institute, as it 
was called, moved from place to place for more than a dec- 
ade, but finally it settled permanently in New Haven in 
1717. It afterward received the name of Yale College in 
honor of Elihu Yale, who had given it generous assistance. 

As a result of the founding of these three institutions, the 
New England and the Southern colonies had their need for 
ministers fairly well supplied, but this was not yet true of 
the Middle colonies. However, the Presbyterians had be- 
come particularly strong in the Middle colonies, and their 
religious zeal resulted in the establishment of the College of 
New Jersey, now Princeton University, in 1746. 

A few years later Benjamin Franklin advanced for the 
college a new raison d'etre. In 1749 he published a pam- 
phlet entitled " Proposals Relating to the Education of 
Youth in Pennsylvania," in which he advocated the estab- 
lishment of an academy whose purpose was not the training 
of ministers but the secular one of developing the practical 
virtue necessary in the opening up of a new country. The 
Academy was opened in 1751, and the charter, granted in 
1755, designated the institution as " The College, Academy, 
and Charitable School of Philadelphia." Though the 
extremely modern organization and curriculum suggested 



History and Present Tendencies 



by Franklin were not realized, the institution, which was 
afterward called " The University of Pennsylvania," offered 
the most liberal curriculum of any college in the colonies 
up to the Revolution. 

The human motive was uppermost also in the establish- 
ment of King's College in 1754. The colonial assembly 
desired its establishment to enhance the welfare and reputa- 
tion of the colony, and the only connection between the col- 
lege and the Church of England lay in the requirement that 
the president should be a communicant of that church and 
that the morning and evening service of the college should 
be performed out of the liturgy of- that church. But the re- 
ligious motive again comes to the fore in the establishment 
of Brown University at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1764, 
primarily to train ministers for the Baptist churches; of 
Queens, afterwards named Rutgers, in 1766, to provide min- 
isters for the Dutch Reformed churches ; and of Dartmouth, 
in 1769, from which it was hoped at first that the evan- 
gelization of the Indians would proceed. 

These colonial colleges in their histories bear a great re- Character 
semblance to one another. They were almost all born in coion^iai 
poverty and led a desperate financial existence for many college 
years. In some cases survival was possible only as the 
result of the untiring self-sacrifice of some great personality 
like Eleazar Wheelock, the first president of Dartmouth; 
in all cases, of the devotion of teachers and officers. Their 
beginnings were all small; in some cases the president was 
the only member of the instructing staff and taught all the 
subjects of the curriculum. The students were few in num- 
ber, the equipment was simple, the buildings usually con- 
sisting of a house for the president, in which he often 
heard recitations, a dormitory for the students, and a col- 
lege hall. Libraries, laboratories, and recreational facili- 
ties were usually conspicuous by their absence. In fact, as 
the curriculum consisted almost exclusively of philosophy, 
Greek, Latin, rhetoric, and a little mathematics, there was no 
great need of much equipment. The classics were taught by 
the intensive grammatical method; in philosophy there was 



6 College Teaching 

a great deal of dialectical disputation; rhetoric was studied 
as an aid to oratory; mathematics included only arithmetic 
and geometry. The aim of instruction was, not to give a 
wide acquaintance with many fields of knowledge for cul- 
tural and appreciative purposes, but rather to develop power 
through intensive exercise upon a restricted curriculum. 
But the value of the materials utilized to produce power 
which would function in oratory, debate, and diplomacy is 
splendidly illustrated in the decades before the Revolution. 
The contest between the colonies and the mother country 
was essentially a rational contest in which questions of con- 
stitutional law and, indeed, of the fundamental principles 
of civil and political existence were debated. Splendidly 
did the leaders of public opinion in the colonies, almost 
every one of whom was a graduate of a colonial college, 
defend the cause of the colonists in pamphlet and debate. 
And when debate was followed by war, twBnty-five per cent 
of the twenty-five hundred graduates of the colonial colleges 
were found in the military service of their country. At the 
close of the struggle for independence, it was again upon 
the shoulders of the men who had gained vision and char- 
acter in the colonial colleges that the burden fell of organ- 
izing the mutually suspicious and antagonistic colonies into 
one nation. Space will not permit even of the enumeration 
of the great leaders who graduated from all the colonial 
colleges, but an idea of the service rendered by those insti- 
tutions to the new nation may be obtained by mentioning the 
names of a few statesmen who received their instruction in 
one of the least of them, William and Mary. In its class- 
rooms were taught Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, 
Edmund Randolph, James Monroe, and John Marshall. 

2. THE NATIONAL ERA 

Trench French influence upon American political and intellectual 

life had become quite pronounced as the result of the con- 
tact between the leaders of the two peoples during and after 
the Revolution. That influence was reflected in the colleges. 

J 



History and Present Tendencies 7 

Instruction in the French language was offered in several of 
the colleges before the close of the eighteenth century, and 
a chair of French was established at Columbia as early as 
1779 and at William and Mary in 1793. The secularizing 
influence of the French united also with the democratizing 
influence of the Revolution in diminishing the influence of 
the church upon the colleges and emphasizing the influence 
of the State and especially the relations between college and 
people. Of the fourteen colleges founded between 1776 and 
1800, the majority were established upon a non-sectarian 
basis. These included institutions of a private nature like 
Washington and Lee, Bowdoin, and Union, as well as insti- 
tutions closely related to the state governments like the Uni- 
versities of North Carolina and of Vermont. There can 
hardly be any doubt that the French system of centralized 
administration in civil affairs influenced the establishment 
of the University of the State of New York. The University 
of the State of New York is not a local institution, but a 
body of nine regents elected by the legislature to control 
the administration of education throughout the State of New 
York. Though organized by Alexander Hamilton, it was 
in all probability much influenced by John Jay, who re- 
turned from France in 1784. But the most potent factor in 
the spread of French influence in the early history of our 
country was Thomas Jefferson. While Jefferson was Amer- 
ican minister to France, he studied the French system of edu- 
cation and embodied ideas taken from it in the organization 
of the University of Virginia. This occupied much of his 
attention during the last two decades of his life. The Uni- 
versity was to be entirely non-sectarian and had for its pur- 
pose (1) to form statesmen, legislators, and judges for the 
commonwealth; (2) to expand the principles and structure 
of government, the laws which regulate the intercourse of 
states, and a sound spirit of legislation; (3) to harmonize 
and promote the interests of all forms of industry, chiefly 
by well-informed views of political economy; (4) to de- 
velop the reasoning faculties of youth and to broaden their 
minds and develop their character; (5) to enlighten them 



8 College Teaching 

with knowledge, especially of the physical sciences which 
will advance the material welfare of the people. These 
progressive views of what the college should aim to do were 
associated with equally advanced views of college ad- 
ministration, such as the elective system and the impor- 
tation of professors from abroad. The remarkable vision, 
constructive imagination, courage, and faith of Jefferson in 
his break with what was traditional and authoritative in 
education has been justified by the fine career of the uni- 
versity which he founded. 

The state ^11 the colleges that were established before the Revolu- 

universities . c ^ ^ i n i 

system tion, and most oi those between the Revolution and the year 

1800, had received direct assistance from the colonial or 
state government either in grants of land, money, the pro- 
ceeds of lotteries, or special taxes. Most of them, however, 
were dependent upon private foundations and controlled by 
denominational bodies. The secularizing influence from 
France, the growing interest in civic and political aff'airs, 
and the democratic spirit resulting from the Revolution 
combined to develop a distrust of the colleges as they were 
organized and a desire to bring them under the control of 
the state. This was apparent in 1779, when the legislature 
of Pennsylvania withdrew the charter of the college of Phil- 
adelphia and created a new corporation to be known as 
" The Trustees of the University of the State of Pennsyl- 
vania "; it was shown in 1787 when Columbia College was 
granted a new charter by the state legislature, under which 
the board of trustees were all drawn from the Board of 
Regents of the State; it was made most evident in 1816 
when the legislature of New Hampshire transformed Dart- 
mouth College into a university without the consent of the 
board of trustees and empowered the governor and council 
to appoint a Board of Overseers. In the celebrated Dart- 
mouth College case, 1819, the old board of trustees, when 
defeated before the Supreme Court of New Hampshire in 
their suit for the recovery of property which had been seized, 
carried the case to the Supreme Court of the United States 
and engaged Daniel Webster as their counsel. The Court 



History and Present Tendencies 9 

declared the act of the New Hampshire legislature in viola- 
tion of the provision of the Constitution of the United States 
which reads that " No state shall pass any . . . law impair- 
ing the obligation of contracts." The decision drew a sharp 
distinction between public and private corporations, and a 
necessary inference was that most of the existing institutions 
for higher education were in the latter class. The result 
was to strengthen the rising demand for publicly controlled 
institutions. The Southern and Western states across the 
Alleghanies that were on the point of framing state consti- 
tutions made provision for state universities under state 
control. 

The intention to provide higher education freely for the 
people had already received its greatest impetus in an Act 
of Congress passed shortly after the passage of the Ordi- 
nance of 1787, providing for the organization of the North- 
west Territory. By that act two entire townships of public 
land were reserved to the states to be erected out of the terri- 
tory, the proceeds of the sale of which were to be devoted to 
the establishment of a state university. These universities 
followed swiftly upon the establishment of new states, and 
the democratic ideal that prevailed is shown in the determi- 
nation that the state university was to be the crown of the 
public educational system of the state. This is well illus- 
trated in the provision of the constitution of Indiana, 
adopted in the very year of the Dartmouth College decision, 
1819, which reads, " It shall be the duty of the General 
Assembly, as soon as circumstances will permit, to provide 
by law for a general system of education, ascending in reg- 
ular gradation from township schools to a state university, 
wherein tuition shall be gratis and equally open to all." 
Circumstances did permit in the following year, and the 
provisions of the bill materialized. The national policy of 
granting public lands for educational purposes to new states 
was continued, and one or two townships were devoted in 
each case to the establishment of a state university. Na- 
tional assistance to higher education was given on an im- 
mense scale in 1862, when the Morrill Act was passed pro- 



10 College Teaching 

viding for the grant of 30,000 acres of land for each repre- 
sentative and senator, to be devoted to the support in each 
state of a higher institution of learning, in which technical 
and agricultural branches should be taught. Within twenty 
years every state in the Union had taken advantage of this 
splendid endowment, either to found a new state university 
which would comply with the requirements as regards 
courses of instruction or to establish an agricultural college 
as an independent institution, or in connection with some 
already existing institution. Not only do some of the finest 
state universities like those of California, Illinois, and Min- 
nesota owe their origins to the Morrill Act, but others owe 
to it their real beginnings as institutions of collegiate grade. 
Up to the passage of the Morrill Act a dozen state universi- 
ties struggled to maintain themselves with meager revenues 
and few students. They were trying to do broad aca- 
demic work, but by no means reached the standards of the 
strong colleges in the eastern part of the country. 

The establishment of state-supported and state-controlled 
universities in the commonwealths organized after the close 
of the eighteenth century by no means put an end to the es- 
tablishment of colleges upon religious foundations. De- 
nominational zeal was very strong in the decades preceding 
the Civil War, and the church was the center of community 
life in the newly settled regions. The need to provide an in- 
telligent ministry and also a higher civilization led to the es- 
tablishment of many small sectarian colleges in the new 
states. Despite the fact that practically all of them would 
today be considered only of secondary grade, they accom- 
plished a splendid work and provided ideals and standards 
of intellectual life in a new country whose population was 
engaged chiefly in supplying the physical needs of life. 
The response made in the Civil War by the institutions of 
higher education throughout the United States, whether pri- 
vately or publicly supported, was a magnificent return for 
the sacrifices endured in their establishment and mainte- 
nance. Everywhere throughout the North the colleges were 
depleted of instructors and students who had entered the 



History and Present Tendencies 11 

ranks, and in the South nearly all the colleges were com- 
pelled to close their doors. Upon the shoulders of their 
graduates fell the burden of directing civil and military 
affairs in state and nation. 



3. THE MODERN ERA 

Were a visitor to Harvard or Columbia in 1860 to revisit 
it today, the changes he would observe would be startling. 
The elective system, graduate studies, professional and tech- 
nical schools, an allied woman's college, and a summer ses- 
sion are a few of the most noticeable activities incorporated 
since 1860. It would be impossible to set any date for the 
beginning of this transformation, so gradual and subtle has 
it been, but the accession of Dr. Charles W. Eliot to the 
presidency of Harvard College in 1869 and the establish- 
ment of Johns Hopkins University in 1876 are definite land- 
marks. 

This chapter is a history of the American college, and 
space will not permit of a detailed description of these ac- 
tivities but simply of a narration of the way they developed 
and of the forces which brought them into being. 

It has already been mentioned that the curriculum of the ^J^^ curric- 

1 1 • • f 1 • ulum and 

average American college at the beginning oi the nmeteenth the eiec- 

century differed but little from the curriculum followed in *^^® system 
the middle of the seventeenth. The reason is simple. The 
curriculum is based upon the biological principle of adap.- 
tation to environment, and the environment of the average 
American of 1800 differed but slightly from his ancestor of 
a century and a half previous. The growth of the curric- 
ulum follows, slowly it is often true, upon the growth of 
knowledge. The growth of knowledge during the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries was slow and insignificant 
compared to its marvelous growth in the nineteenth cen- 
tury, particularly in the last half of it. The great discov- 
eries in science, first in chemistry, then in physics and biol- 
ogy, resulted in their gradually displacing much of the 
logic and philosophy which had maintained the prime place 



12 College Teaching 

in the old curriculum. The interest aroused in the French 
language and literature by our Revolution; in the Spanish 
by the South American wars of independence; and in the 
German by the distinguished scholars who studied in the 
German universities during the middle decades of the nine- 
teenth century, caused a demand that those languages as 
well as English have a place in the curriculum. This could 
be secured only by making them partly alternatives to the 
classical languages. The Industrial Revolution, based as it 
was upon the application of science to industry, not only 
gave an impetus to the establishment of technical schools, 
but by revolutionizing the production and distribution of 
wealth pushed into the curriculum the science that deals 
with wealth, political economy. The growth of cities that 
followed in the wake of the Industrial Revolution, the con- 
flicts between the interests of classes, — viz., landowners, 
capitalists, and laborers, — the rapid decay of feudalism and 
the spread of political democracy following the French Rev- 
olution, the expansion of commerce to all corners of the 
globe and the resulting development of colonialism, all these 
human interests gave a new meaning to the study of his- 
tory and politics which caused them to secure a place of 
great prominence in the curriculum during the last quarter 
of the nineteenth century. 

It is perfectly obvious that as the time at the student's 
disposal remained the same, if he were to pursue even a 
part of the new subject matter that was gradually admitted 
into the curriculum, the course of study could no longer 
remain wholly prescribed and he would have to be granted 
some freedom of choice. The growth in number of students 
also produced changes in administration favorable to the 
introduction of the elective system. In the early history of 
the American college one instructor taught a single class in 
all subjects, and it was not until 1776 that the transfer 
was made at Harvard from the teaching of classes by one 
instructor to the teaching of each subject by one instructor. 
With increase in numbers the students were unable to receive 
in each year instruction by every member of the teaching 



History and Present Tendencies 13 

staff. In spite of the quite obvious advantages of the elec- 
tive system, it was obstinately resisted by the defenders of 
the classics and also of orthodox religion and at first made 
but slow progress. Thomas Jefferson gave it the first great 
impetus when he made it an essential element in the organ- 
ization of the University of Virginia in 1825. Francis 
Wayland, president of Brown University and one of the few 
college presidents of his day who were educators in the 
modern sense, made a splendid exposition and defense of it 
in 1850 in his " Report to the Corporation of Brown Uni- 
versity on Changes in the System of Collegiate Education." 
But the elective system waited upon the elevation of Charles 
W. Eliot to the presidency of Harvard in 1869 for its general 
realization; in 1872 the senior year at Harvard became 
wholly elective; in 1879, the" junior year; in 1884, the soph- 
omore year; and in 1894 the single absolute requirement 
that remained in the entire college course was English A. 
The action of Harvard was rapidly imitated to a more or 
less thorough extent throughout the country. 

Probably no two colleges administer the elective system 
in the same way. There has been a considerable revulsion 
of opinion against unrestricted election of individual sub- 
jects. In many colleges the subjects of the curriculum were 
arranged into groups which must be elected in toto. This 
resulted in the multiplication of bachelor's degrees, each in- 
dicating the special course — arts, science, philosophy, or 
literature — which had been followed. At the present time 
the tendency is to prescribe the -subjects considered essen- 
tial to a liberal education chiefly in the first two years and 
to permit election among groups of related courses in the 
last two. This has maintained the unity that formerly pre- 
vailed and introduced greater breadth into the curriculum. 
It has also brought the new bachelor's degrees into disfavor, 
and today the majority of the best colleges give only the 
A.B. degree for the regular academic course. Valuable 
modifications in the elective system are constantly being 
adopted. One such is the preceptorial system at Princeton 
and elsewhere, under which the preceptors personally super- 



14 



College Teaching 



German in- 
fluence and 
graduate 
study 



vise the reading and study of a small group of students and 
can therefore advise them from personal knowledge of their 
capacity. Another is the system of honor courses adopted 
at Columbia and elsewhere, whereby a distinction is made 
between mere " passmen " and students desirous of attain- 
ing high rank in courses that are carefully organized in se- 
quence. 

The introduction of new subjects into the curriculum of 
the college and the adoption by it of the elective system 
owe much to German influence upon American education. 
Though this influence was partly exerted by the study of the 
German language and literature, it resulted chiefly from the 
residence of American students at German universities. 
The first American to be granted the degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy from a German university was Edward Everett, 
who received it at Gottingen in 1817. He was followed by 
George Ticknor, George Bancroft, Henry W. Longfellow, 
John Lothrop Motley, Frederick Henry Hedge, William 
Dwight Whitney, Theodore Dwight Woolsey, and a host of 
scholars who shed luster upon American education and 
scholarship in the mid-nineteenth century. Most of these 
men became associated with American colleges in some ca- 
pacity and had a profound influence upon their ideals, or- 
ganization, and methods of teaching. They came back de- 
voted advocates of wide and deep scholarship, of independ- 
ent research, and of the need of such scholastic tools as 
libraries and la«boratories. But especially did they give an 
impetus to the movement in favor of freedom of choice 
(Lernfreiheit) in studies. Only by the adoption of such a 
principle could the pronounced tastes or needs of individual 
students be satisfied. 

Some slight effort had been made in the first four dec- 
ades of the nineteenth century by a few of the colleges to 
conform to the desire of students for further study in some 
chosen field, but the results were negligible. In 1847 Yale 
esta'blished a " department of philosophy and the arts for 
scientific and gr-aduate study leading to the degree of bach- 
elor of philosophy." The first degree of doctor of philos- 



History and Present Tendencies 15 



ophy was bestowed in 1861, .but a distinct graduate school 
was not organized until 1872. Harvard announced in the 
same year the establishment of a graduate department to 
which only holders of the bachelor's degree would be ad- 
mitted and in which the degrees of doctor of philosophy and 
doctor of science would be conferred. The graduate depart- 
ment was not made a separate school, however, until 1890. 

The greatest impetus to the establishment of graduate 
schools in the American universities was made by the estab- 
lishment of Johns Hopkins University in 1876. Upon its 
foundation the chief aim was announced to be the develop- 
ment of instruction in the methods of scientific research. 
The influence of this institution upon the development of 
higher education in the United States has been incalculably 
great. Johns Hopkins was not a transplanted German uni- 
versity. The unique place of the college in American edu- 
cation was shown by the fact that graduate schools have 
followed the lead of Johns Hopkins in building upon the 
college. Even Clark University at Worcester, founded in 
1889 upon a purely graduate basis, established an under- 
graduate college in 1902. 

One of the most gratifying features of higher education 
in the United States during the past quarter century has 
been the extension of graduate schools to the strong state 
universities. Research work in them usually began in the 
school of agriculture, where the intensive study of the sci- 
ences, particularly chemistry and biology, had such splendid 
results in improved farming and dairying that legislatures 
were gradually persuaded to extend the support for research 
to purely liberal studies. With the growth and development 
of graduate schools in this country, the practice of going to 
Europe for advanced specialized study has abated consid- 
erably. It will probably so continue in the future, partic- 
ularly with regard to Germany. On the other hand, should 
the new ideal of international good will become a living 
reality, education through a wide system of exchange pro- 
fessors and students may be expected to make its contribu- 
tion. 



16 



College Teaching 



Technical 
and profes- 
sional 
study 



While the graduate school was built upon the college, the 
technical school grew up by the side of it or upon an inde- 
pendent foundation. The first technical school was estab- 
lished at Troy, New York, in 1824, and was called Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic Institute, after its founder, Stephen Van 
Rensselaer. For a score of years no other development of 
consequence was made, but in 1847 the foundations were 
made of what have since become the Lawrence Scientific 
School at Harvard and the Sheffield Scientific School at 
Yale. The passage of the Morrill Act in 1862 had a quick- 
ening effect on education in engineering and agriculture. 
In the decade from 1860 to 1870 some twenty-two techni- 
cal institutions were founded, most of them by the aid of the 
land grants. The most important of them is the Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology, where instruction was first 
given in 1865 and which has exerted by far the greatest influ- 
ence upon the development of scientific and technical edu- 
cation. The best technical schools require a high school 
diploma for admission and have a four-year course of study, 
but the only technical school on a graduate basis is the 
School of Mines at Columbia University. 

Professional education in theology, law, and medicine in 
the United States was conducted chiefly upon the appren- 
ticeship system down into the nineteenth century. Though 
chairs of divinity existed in the colonial colleges in the 
eighteenth century, systematic preparation for the minis- 
try was not generally attempted and the prospective minis- 
ter usually came under the special care of a prominent 
clergyman who prepared him for the profession. In 1819 
Harvard established a separate faculty of divinity, and three 
years later Yale founded a theological department. Since 
then about fifty colleges and universities have established 
theological faculties and about 125 independent theological 
schools have been founded as the result of denominational 
zeal. A majority of all these institutions require at least a 
high school diploma for admission; half of them require 
a college degree. Nearly all off^er a three-year course of 
study and confer the degree of bachelor of divinity. 



History and Fresent Tendencies 17 



Previous to the Civil War the 'great majority of legal 
practitioners obtained their preparation in a law office. 
Though the University of Pennsylvania attempted to estab- 
lish a law school in 1791, and Columbia in 1797, both at- 
tempts were abortive, and it remained for Harvard to estab- 
lish the first permanent law school in 1817. Even this was 
but a feeble affair until Justice Joseph Story became asso- 
ciated with it in 1830. Up to 1870 but three terms of study 
were required for a degree; until 1877 students were ad- 
mitted without examination, and special students were ad- 
mitted without examination as late as 1893. Since then the 
advance in standards has been very rapid, and in 1899 Har- 
vard placed its law school upon a graduate basis. Though 
but few others have emulated Harvard in this respect, the 
improvement in legal education during the past two decades 
has been marked. Of the 120 law schools today, the great 
majority are connected with colleges and universities, de- 
mand a high school diploma for admission, maintain a 
three-year course of study, and confer the degree of LL.B. 
Twenty-four per cent of the twenty thousand students are 
college graduates. In some of the best schools the induc- 
tive method of study — i.e., the " case method " — has super- 
seded the lecture, and in practically all the moot court is a 
prominent feature. 

Entrance into the medical profession in colonial times was 
obtained by apprenticeship in the office of a practicing phy- 
sician. The first permanent medical school was the medical 
college of Philadelphia, which was established in 1765 and 
which became an integral part of the University of Pennsyl- 
vania in 1791. Columbia, Harvard, and Dartmouth also 
founded schools before the close of the eighteenth century, 
and these were slowly followed by other colleges in the early 
decades of the nineteenth century. During almost the en- 
tire nineteenth century medical education in the United 
States was kept on a low plane by the existence of large 
numbers of proprietary medical " colleges " organized for 
profit, requiring only the most meager entrance qualifica- 
tions, giving poor instruction, and having very inadequate 



18 



College Teaching 



College edu- 
cation for 
women — 
The inde- ' 
pendent 
college 



equipment in the way of laboratories and clinics. In fact, 
medical education did not obtain a high standard until the 
establishment of the Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1893. 
Since then the efforts of the medical schools connected with 
the strong universities and of the Rockefeller Foundation to 
raise the minimum standard of medical education have re- 
sulted in the elimination of the weakest medical schools. 
The total number fell from 150 in 1900 to 100 in 1914. 
Not all of these demand a high school diploma for admis- 
sion, though the tendency is to stiffen entrance requirements, 
but all have a four-year course of study. In most insti- 
tutions experience in laboratory, clinic, and hospital has 
superseded the old lecture system as the method of instruc- 
tion. Closely associated with the progress in medicine and 
to a great extent similar in history has been the progress in 
dentistry and pharmacy. There are now fifty schools of 
dentistry, with nearly 9000 students, and seventy-two schools 
of pharmacy, with nearly 6000 students. 

One of the most gratifying advances in professional educa- 
tion has been that of the teacher. Practically all the state 
universities and many of the universities and colleges upon 
private foundations have established either departments or 
schools of education which require at least the same entrance 
qualifications as does the college proper and in many cases 
confine the work to the junior and senior years. Teachers 
College of Columbia University is on a graduate basis. 
Though many of the 250 training and normal schools 
throughout the country do not require a high school diploma 
for admission, the tendency is wholly in that direction. In 
no field of professional education has the application of 
scientific principles to actual practice made such progress as 
in that of the teacher. 

Few movements in the history of American education had 
more important results than the academy movement which 
prevailed during the period between the Revolution and the 
Civil War. Possibly the principle upon which the new na- 
tion was established, i. e., the privilege of every individual 
to make the most of himself, influenced the founders of the 



History and Present Tendencies 19 

academies to make provision for the education of girls be- 
yond the mere rudiments. Certainly this aspect of the 
movement had a far-reaching influence. Some of the ear- 
liest of the academies admitted girls as well as boys from 
the beginning, and some soon became exclusively female. 
When it became evident from the work of the academies 
that sex differences were not of as great importance as had 
been supposed, it was not a long step to higher education. 
Some of the academies added a year or two to the curric- 
ulum and took on the more dignified name of " seminary." 
In this transition period the influence of a few great per- 
sonalities was profound, and even a brief sketch of the his- 
tory of women's education cannot omit to mention the splen- 
did work of Emma Willard and Mary Lyon. Mrs. Willard 
was an exponent of the belief that freedom of development 
for the individual was the greatest desideratum for human- 
ity. She not only diffused this idea in her addresses and 
writings but tried to utilize it in the establishment in 1814 
of the Troy Female Seminary, which was the forerunner of 
many others throughout the country. Mary Lyon was rather 
the representative of the religious influence in education, the 
embodiment of the belief that to do one's duty is the great 
purpose in life. In 1837 she founded Mount Holyoke Sem- 
inary, which had an influence of inestimable value in send- 
ing well-equipped women throughout the country as teach- 
ers. The importance of this service was particularly evi- 
dent during the period of the Civil War. 

Although a number of excellent institutions for women 
bearing the name of college were founded before the Civil 
War, the first one of really highest rank was Vassar College, 
which opened its doors to students in 1865. Smith and Wel- 
lesley were founded in 1875, and Bryn Mawr in 1885. 
These four colleges are in every respect the equal of the 
best colleges for men. They are the most important of a 
dozen independent colleges for women, almost all of which 
are situated in the East. To establish the independent col- 
lege was the chief method adopted in the older parts of the 
country to solve the problem of women's higher education, 



20 



College Teaching 



The develop- 
ment of co- 
education 



The af- 
filiated col- 
lege for 
women 



Graduate 
and pro- 
fessional 
studies for 
women 



rather than to reorganize colleges for men where conditions 
were already established. 

The independent college is not the method that has pre- 
vailed in the West. When the inspiration to higher educa- 
tion for women arrived west of the Alleghanies, conditions, 
especially lack of resources, practically necessitated coedu- 
cation. Oberlin, founded in 1834, was the first fully co- 
educational institution of college grade in the world. In 
1841 three women received from it the bachelor's degree, 
the first to get it. Oberlin's success had a pronounced influ- 
ence on the state universities, which, it was argued, should 
be open and free to all citizens, since they were supported by 
public taxation. Almost all the state universities and the 
great majority of the colleges .and universities on private 
foundations are today coeducational. The results predicted 
by pessimists, viz., that the physical health of women would 
suffer, that their intellectual capacity would depreciate 
scholarship, and that the interests of the family would be 
menaced, have not eventuated. 

The spread of coeducation in the state universities of the 
West and the South and its presence in the newer private 
universities like Cornell and Chicago had an influence upon 
the older universities of the East. This influence has re- 
sulted in a third method of solving the problem of women's 
education; viz., the establishment of the affiliated college. 
Several universities have established women's colleges, 
sometimes under the same and sometimes under a different 
board of trustees, to provide the collegiate education for 
women which is given to men by the undergraduate depart- 
ments. Barnard College, affiliated with Columbia Univer- 
sity, Radcliffe College, affiliated with Harvard University, 
Woman's College, affiliated with Brown University, the Col- 
lege for Women, affiliated with the Western Reserve Uni- 
versity, and the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for 
Women, affiliated with Tulane University, have all been 
founded within the past forty years. 

All the universities for men except Princeton and Johns 
Hopkins and all the fully coeducational institutions admit 



Fraternities 



History and Present Tendencies 21 

women upon the same terms as men to graduate work. 
Graduate work is also undertaken with excellent results in 
some of the independent women's colleges, as at Bryn Mawr. 
Professional education for women has been coeducational 
from the beginning, with the exception of medicine. The 
prejudice against coeducation in that profession was so 
strong that five women's medical schools were organized, 
but they provide instruction for little more than a quarter 
of the women medical students. The increase in the num- 
ber of women in professional schools has not by any means 
kept pace with the increase in the colleges. It appears 
that, with the exception of teaching, woman is not to be a 
very important f»actor in the learned professions in the near 
future. 

Nothing differentiates more clearly the American college Under- 
from European institutions of higher education than the iife — 
kind of non-scholastic activities undertaken by the students. 
From the very beginning the college became a place of resi- 
dence as well as of study for students from a distance, and 
the dormitory was an essential element in its life. With 
increase in numbers, especially after the Revolution, when 
all distinctions of birth or family were abolished, students 
naturally divided into groups. The first fraternity. Phi 
Beta Kappa, was founded in 1776 at William and Mary, 
with a patriotic and literary purpose, and membership in 
it has practically ever since been confined to graduates who 
have attained high scholastic standing. When one speaks 
of college fraternities, however, he does not refer to $ B K, 
but to one of the intercollegiate social organizations which 
have chapters in several colleges organized somewhat upon 
the plan of a club and whose members live in a chapter 
, house. The first such fraternity was founded at Yale in 
1821, but it was limited to the senior class. The three fra- 
ternities established at Union in 1825-1827 form the founda- 
tion of the present system. The fraternities spread rapidly 
and are today very numerous. There are about thirty of na- 
tional importance, having about a thousand chapters and a 
quarter of a million members. The fraternity system is 



22 



College Teaching 



Eeligious 
life 



Physical 
education 



bitterly attacked as being undemocratic, expensive, empha- 
sizing social rather than scholastic attainments, and, gener- 
ally speaking, a divisive rather than a unifying factor in 
college life. Hence some colleges have abolished it. Fra- 
ternities have been defended, however, as promoting close 
fellowship and even helping to develop character. So 
strongly are they entrenched, not only in undergraduate but 
also in alumni affection, that they probably form a perma- 
nent element in college life. 

The early American college was primarily a place to 
prepare for the ministry, and personal piety was a matter 
of official enforcement. For a number of reasons religious 
zeal declined in the eighteenth century. After the Revolu- 
tion, under the influence of the new political theories and of 
French skepticism the percentage of students professing to 
be active Christians fell very low. In the early nineteenth 
century the interest of students in religion increased, and 
religious organizations in a number of colleges were 
founded. Practically all of these later gave way to the 
Young Men's Christian Association, which has now over 
50,000 members organized in almost all the colleges of the 
country save the Roman Catholic. The religious interests 
of Roman Catholic students are in many colleges served by 
the Newman Clubs and similar organizations, and of Jewish 
students by the Menorah Society. The religion of college 
students has become less a matter of form and speech and 
more a matter of service — social service of many kinds 
at home and missionary service abroad. 

The educational reformers of Europe in the late eight- 
eenth and early nineteenth centuries placed great emphasis 
upon a more complete physical training. This interest was 
felt in the United States, and simple gymnastic apparatus 
was set up at Harvard and Yale in 1826. The movement 
spread very slowly, however, due probably to ignorance of 
its real physiological import. Since the Civil War the de- 
velopment of the gymnastic system has been rapid, and 
now practically every first-class college has its gymnasium, 
attendance upon which is compulsory, and some have their 



History and Present Tendencies 23 

stadium and natatorium. Of independent origin but hast- 
ened by the spread of the gymnasium is the vast athletic in- 
terest of undergraduates. Its earliest form, conducted on a 
considerable scale, was rowing. The first rowing club was 
formed at Yale in 1843, and the first intercollegiate race was 
rowed on Lake Winnepesaukee in 1852, Harvard defeating 
Yale. Rowing is now a form of athletics at every college 
where facilities permit. The first baseball nine was formed 
at Princeton in 1859, and the game spread rapidly to all the 
other colleges. Football in a desultory and unorganized 
way made its appearance early in the nineteenth century. 
As early as 1840 an annual game was played at Yale be- 
tween the freshmen and the sophomores, but the establish- 
ment of a regular football association dates from 1872, also 
at Yale. In the following year an intercollegiate organiza- 
tion was formed, and since then football has increased in 
popularity at the colleges to such an extent that just as base- 
ball has become the great national game, so has football be- 
come the great American collegiate game. Track athletics 
is the most recent form of athletic sports to be introduced 
into the college, and most colleges now have their field 
days. In addition to these four major forms of college 
sports, tennis, lacrosse, basketball, and swimming also have 
a prominent place. The four major sports are usually un- 
der the control of special athletic associations, which spend 
large sums of money and have a great influence with the 
students. In fact, so great has become the interest of col- 
lege students in athletics that much fear has been expressed 
about its influence upon scholastic work, and voices are not 
lacking demanding its curtailment.^ Military training is a 
phase of physical education which, though it had earlier 
found a place in the land-grant institutions, came to the fore 
as a part of the colleges' contribution to winning the world 
war. Students' Army Training Corps were established at 
many of the higher institutions of the country, and the aca- 
demic studies were made to correlate with the military work 
as a nucleus. At the present time, however, the colleges are 
1 W. T. Foster in N. E. A. Reports, 1915. 



24 



College Teaching 



Student 
literary ac- 
tivities — 
College 
journalism 



Student 
self-govern- 
ment 



putting their work back on a pre-war basis, and it seems 
most unlikely that military training will survive as a cor- 
porate part of their work. 

Journalism, though its actual performance is limited to a 
small number of students, has had an honored place as an 
undergraduate activity for almost a hundred years. It 
served first as a means of developing literary ability among 
the students, afterwards as a vehicle for college news, and 
now there has been added to these purposes the uniting of 
alumni and undergraduates. Hence we find among college 
journals dailies, monthlies, and quarterlies, .some of them 
humorous and some with a serious literary purpose. Jour- 
nalism is not the only method of expressing undergraduate 
thought. There has been a great revival of intracollegiate 
and of intercollegiate debating in recent years. Literary 
societies for debating the great issues preceding the Revolu- 
tion was the first development of undergraduate life, and 
every college before and after the Revolution had strong 
societies. As undergraduate interests increased in number, 
and especially as the fra«ternity system began to spread, de- 
bating societies assumed a relatively less important place, 
but in the past two decades great interest has been revived 
in them. The glee club, or choral society, along with the 
college orchestra, minister to the specialized interests of 
some students, and the dramatic association to those of 
others. One significant result of such activities has been 
to establish a nexus between the college and community 
life. 

One other feature of undergraduate life cannot be over- 
looked; viz., student self-government. The college student 
today is two or three years older than was his predecessor 
of fifty or sixty years ago. Moreover, with the great in- 
crease in the number of students has come a parallel in- 
crease in complexity of administration and in the duties 
of the college professor. Finally, a sounder psychology 
has taught the wisdom of placing in the hands of the stu- 
dents the control of many activities which they can supervise 
better than the faculty. As a result of these and of other 



History and Present Tendencies 25 



influences, in many colleges today all extra-scholastic activi- 
ties are either supervised by the student council, the mem- 
bers of which are elected by the students, or by a joint body 
of student and faculty members. The eff'ect in almost every 
instance has been the diminution of friction between the fac- 
ulty and students and the development of better relations be- 
tween them. In some colleges the honor system is found, 
under which even proctoring at examinations does not exist, 
as all disciplinary matters, including the decision in serious 
offenses like cheating, rest with the student council. Stu- 
dent self-government is only one evidence of the democra- 
tization that has taken place in the administration of the col- 
lege during the past two decades. Even more noticeable 
than student self-government is the tendency recently mani- 
fested to transfer more of the control of the government of 
the college from the board of trustees to the faculty. 

With the extension of commerce and the attempt to bring 
it under efficient organization in the nineteenth century, the 
demand has been made upon the colleges to train experts in 
this field. Germany was the first to engage in it, and just 
before the war probably led the world. France and Eng- 
land have remained relatively indifferent. In America, the 
so-called " business college " proved entirely too narrow in 
scope, and beginning with the Wharton School of Finance 
and Commerce of the University of Pennsylvania (1881), 
the higher institutions have begun to train for this import- 
ant field. Some of the colleges of commerce, like those of 
Dartmouth and Harvard, demand extensive liberal prepara- 
tion; others, like Wharton and the schools connected with 
the state universities, coordinate their liberal and vocational 
work; a few, like that of New York University, give 
almost exclusive attention to the practical element. 

Two other movements might be mentioned as illustrat- 
ing the attempt to extend the opportunity for higher edu- 
cation to an ever increasing number of people. One 

the development of extension courses and the other 



IS 



New oppor- 
tunities in 
higher edu- 
cation 



the offering of evening work 
the regular sessions. These 



to 
are 



those who cannot attend 
both steps in the direc- 



26 



College Teaching 



The future 
of the col- 
lege in 
American 
education — 
Relation to 
secondary 
schools 



The junior 
college 



tion of equality of opportunity which is the ultimate aim 
of education in a democratic country. 

The college preceded the high school in time, and when 
the high school began its career in the middle of the 
nineteenth century it was made tributary to the college 
in all essentials. By deciding requirements for admis- 
sion, the college practically prescribed the curriculum 
of the high school; by conducting examinations itself it 
practically determined methods of teaching in the high 
school. But a remarkable change in these respects has 
taken place in the past two decades. The high school, 
which is almost omnipresent in our country, has attained 
independence and today organizes its curricula without 
much reference to the college. If there be any domina- 
tion in college entrance requirements today, it is rather 
the high school that dominates. Over a large part of 
the country, especially in states maintaining state universi- 
ties, there are now no examinations for entrance to college. 
The college accepts all graduates of accredited high 
schools — i. e., high schools that the state university de- 
cides maintain proper secondary standards. This growth 
in strength and independence has been accompanied by a 
lengthening of the high school course from two years 
in the middle of the last century to four years at the 
present time. 

With the introduction of the principle of promotion by 
subject instead of by class, the strong high schools have 
been enabled to undertake to teach subjects in their last 
years which were formerly taught in the first years of the 
college. They have done this so well that the practice 
has grown up in some parts of the country, especially on 
the Pacific Coast, of extending the course of the high 
school to six years and of completing in them the work 
of the first two years of college. This enables more 
young men and women throughout the state to receive 
collegiate education, and as the best-equipped teachers 
in the high schools are usually in the last years and the 
worst-equipped teachers in the college are usually in the 



Histof'ij and Present Tendencies 27 

first years, the system makes for better education. More- 
over, it relieves the state universities of the crowds of 
students in the first two years and permits overworked pro- 
fessors to concentrate upon the advanced work of the last 
two years and upon research work in the graduate schools. 
A system which offers so many advantages and is so pop- 
ular both in the high, school and the university bids fair to 
spread. 

While the movement makinar for the elimination of the Theajbre- 

. 1 . xvT viated and 

college from below has been taking place in the West, condensed 

another movement having the same effect has been taking l^^j^^se 
place in the East, only the pressure has been from above. 
The tendency is spreading for the professional schools of 
the strong universities to demand a college degree for ad- 
mission. If the full four years of the college are de- 
manded in addition to the four years of the secondary 
school and the eight years of the elementary school, the 
great majority of students will begin their professional 
education at twenty-two and their professional careers at 
twenty-six, and they will hardly be self-supporting before 
thirty. This seems an unreasonably long period of prepa- 
ration compared to that required in other progressive 
countries. The German student, for example, begins his 
professional studies immediately upon graduation from the 
gymnasium at eighteen. Hence the demand has arisen 
for a shortening of the college course. This demand has 
been met in several ways. In some colleges the courses 
have been arranged in such a way that the bright and in- 
dustrious student may complete the work required for 
graduation in three years. In others, as at Harvard, the 
student may elect in his senior year the studies of the 
first year of the professional school. Another tendency 
in the same direction is to permit students in the junior 
and even in the sophomore years to elect subjects of a 
vocational nature. This has been bitterly contested by 
those who hold that the minimum essentials of liberal 
culture should be acquired before vocational specialization 
begins. Columbia permits a student to complete his college 



28 College Teaching 

and professional studies in six years, and at the end of that 
time he receives both the bachelor's and the professional 
degrees. 

It is to be noted, however, that these solutions of the 
problem and, in fact, most other solutions that have been 
suggested, apply only to a college connected with a univer- 
sity; they could not be administered in the independent 
college. But a movement has developed in the Middle 
West which may result in another solution ; i. e., the Junior 
College. It can be best understood by reference to the 
policy of the University of Chicago. That institution 
divides its undergraduate course into two parts: a Junior 
College of two years, the completion of whose course brings 
with it the title of Associate in Arts, and a Senior College 
of two years, the completion of whose course is rewarded 
with the regular bachelor's degree. There have become 
affiliated with the University of Chicago a considerable 
number of colleges throughout the Mississippi Valley which 
have frankly become Junior Colleges and confine their 
work to the freshman and sophomore years. And this has 
become true of other universities. It would seem inevitable 
that the bachelor's degree will finally be granted at the 
end of the Junior College and some other degree, perhaps 
the master's, which has an anomalous place in American 
education in any case, at the end of the Senior College, 
This has, in fact, been suggested by President Butler. The 
University of Chicago has also struck out in another new 
direction. Provided a certain amount of work is done 
in residence at the University, the remainder may be com- 
pleted in absentia, i. e., through correspondence courses. 

The Junior College movement has had the excellent re- 
sult of inducing many weak colleges to confine their work 
to what they really can afford to do. Many parts of our 
country have a surplus of colleges, chiefly denominational. 
Ohio alone has more than fifty. The cost of maintaining 
dormitories, laboratories, libraries, apparatus, and other 
equipment and paying respectable salaries cannot be met 
by the tuition fees in any college. The college must either 



History and Present Tendencies 29 

have a large income-producing endowment, which few have, 
or must receive gifts sufficient to meet expenses. Gifts to 
colleges and universities form one of the finest evidences 
of interest in higher education in the United States, and 
reach really colossal proportions. In the past fifty years, 
during which this form of generosity has prevailed, over 
600 million dollars have been given, and in 1914 gifts from 
private sources amounted to more than 30 million dollars. 
Most of this money is given to the non-sectarian institu- 
tions and not to the small denominational colleges 
scattered over the country. As they are in addition unable 
to compete with the state universities, they are for every 
reason justified in becoming Junior ' Colleges. But this 
does not apply to the old independent colleges, such as 
Amherst, Williams, Dartmouth, etc., which have loyal 
and wealthy alumni associations. They have the support 
necessary to retain the four-year course and seem deter- 
mined to do so. 

Just what the outcome of the whole question of short- 
ening the college course may be is not now evident. That 
concessions in time must be made to the demand for an 
earlier beginning of professional education seems certain. 
That the saving should be made in the college course is 
not so certain. A sounder pedagogy seems to indicate that 
one year, if not two, can be saved in the period from the 
sixth to the eighteenth year. It is probable that the 
arbitrary division of American education into elementary, 
secondary, collegiate, and university, each with a stated 
number of years, will give way to a real unification of the 
educational process. Most Americans would regret to see 
the college, the unique product of American education, 
which has had such an honorable part in the development 
of our civilization, disappear in the unifying process. 

Stephen Pierce Duggan 

College of the City of New York 



30 College Teaching 



Bibliography 

The bibliography on the American college is almost inexhaustible. 
The list here given is confined to the best books that have appeared 
since 1900. 

Angell, J, B. Selected Addresses. New York, 1912. 
Association of American Universities. Proceedings of the Annual 

Conference. 
Butler, N. M. Education in the United States. New York, 1900. 
Cattell, J. M. University Control. New York, 1913. 
Crawford, W. H. (editor) . The American College. New York, 

1915. (Papers by Faunce, Shorey, Haskins, Rhees, Thwing, 

Finley, Few, Slocum, Meiklejohn, Claxton.) 
Cyclopedia of Education, article on " American College.'" New 

York, 1911. 
Dexter, E. G. History of Education in the United States. New 

York, 1904. 
Draper, A. S. American Education. Boston, 1909. 
Flexner, a. The American College: A Criticism. General Educa- 
tion Board, New York, 1908. 
Foster, W. T. Administration of the College Curriculum.. Boston, 

1911. 
Harper, W. R. The Trend in Higher Education. Chicago, 1905. 
Kingsley, C. D. College Entrance Requirements. United States 

Bureau of Education, 1913. 
MacLean, G. E. Present Standards of Higher Education in the 

United States. United States Bureau of Education, 1913. 
National Association of State Universities in the United States of 

America. Annual Transactions and Proceedings. 
Risk, R. K. America at College. London, 1908. 
Snow, L. F. College Curriculum in the United States. New York, 

1907. 
Thwing, C. F. History of Higher Education in the United States. 

New York, 1906. 

The American College; What It Is and What It May Become. 

New York, 1914. 

College Administration. New York, 1900. 

West, A. F. Short Papers on American Liberal Education. New 
York, 1907. 



II 

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR COLLEGE 
TEACHING 

WERE this chapter to be a discussion of schemes of introduction 
training, now in operation, that had been devised to 
prepare teachers for colleges, it could not be written, 
for there are no such schemes. Many elementary and 
secondary teachers have undergone training for their life 
work, as investigators have, by a different regimen, of 
course, for theirs. But if college and university teachers 
do their work well, it is because they are born with com- 
petence for their calling, or were self-taught, or happened 
to grow into competence accidentally, as a by-product of 
training for other and partly alien ends, or learned to teach 
by teaching. 

There are able college men, presidents and others, who 
view this situation with equanimity, if not with satisfaction. 
Teachers are born, not made, it is said. Can pedagogy 
furnish better teachers than specialized scholarly training? 
it is asked. If we train definitely for teaching, we shall 
diminish scholarship, cramp and warp native teaching 
faculty, and mechanize our class procedure, it is objected. 

Had the subject of training for college teaching been 
discussed, no doubt other objections would have been ad- 
vanced. But it has not been discussed, as will be seen 
from the very scant bibliography at the end of the chapter. 
No plan of training for college teaching is in operation, 
and no discussion of such a plan can be found. Each 
of a half-dozen men has argued his individual views, and 
elicited no reply. 

This state of facts notwithstanding, the subject is well 
worth discussing, and one may even venture to prophesy 
that in a decade, or at latest two, the subject will have 
a respectable literature, and enough training plans will be 
in operation to permit fruitful comparisons. 

31 



32 



College Teaching 



How the 
college 
teacher 
has been 
and is 
trained 



When specific training is first urged for specialized work, 
there always is opposition. The outgoing generation re- 
members the opposition to specialized training for law, 
medicine, and engineering, to say nothing of farming, 
school teaching and business. But in spite of obstructive 
and retarding objections, specialized types of training for 
specialized types of work have grown in number and favor, 
and today we are being shown convincingly that nations 
which have declined to set up the fundamental types of 
special training find themselves able to make effective only 
a fraction of their resources. The majority of the per- 
sonnel in every higher calling has about average native 
aptitude for it, and it is just the average man who can 
be improved in competence for any work by training 
directed to that end rather than to another. This is, of 
course, true of college teaching. 

In early days in this country the great majority of college 
teachers were clergymen, trained in most cases abroad. 
Later bookish graduates came to be the chief source of 
supply, their appointment in their own colleges, and in- 
frequently in others, following close upon their graduation. 
Well into the third quarter of last century college faculties 
were selected almost exclusively from these two types, 
representatives of the former decreasing and of the latter 
increasing in relative number. Neither type was specifi- 
cally trained for teaching in colleges or elsewhere. 

With the founding and developing of Johns Hopkins 
University a new era in higher education opened in this 
country. The paucity of exact scholarship came to be 
known, and the country's need of scholarship to be ap- 
preciated. In colleges grown from English seedlings we 
sought to implant grafts from German universities. In- 
dependent colleges and colleges within universities, while 
still called upon by American traditions and needs to pre- 
pare their students for enlightened living by means of a 
broadening and liberating training, came to be manned 
preponderatingly by narrowly specialized investigators, 
withdrawn from everyday life, with concentrated interests 



Training for College Teaching 33 

focused upon subjects or parts of subjects, rather than upon 
students. Little thought was, or is yet, given to the prepa- 
ration of college teachers for their duties as teachers, 
and that little rested, and still in large measure rests, 
satisfied with the assumption that by some unexplained and 
it may be inexplicable transfer of competence a man 
closeted and intensively trained to search for truth in books 
and laboratories emerges after three or more years well 
equipped for divining and developing the mental processes 
and interests of freshmen. 

Once fairly examined, this assumption lacks plausibility. 
" We consider the Ph.D. a scholar's degree and not a 
teacher's degree," says the dean of one of our leading 
graduate schools, and yet preparation for this scholar's 
degree has been and is practically the only formal prepara- 
tion open to college teachers in this country. 

It goes without saying that scholarship is one of the Equipment 
basal needs of college teachers, a scholarship that keeps college 
alive, and is human and contagious. But it should be re- teachers 
membered that there are several kinds of scholarship, and 
it is pertinent to ask what kind college teachers need. 
Should they, for instance, model themselves on the broad 
shrewdness and alluring scholarly mellowness of James 
Russell Lowell or on the untiring encyclopedic exactitude 
and minuteness of Von Helmholz? Or is there an even 
better ideal or ideals for them? I would suggest that the 
teacher's knowledge of his subject should, essentially, be 
of a kind that would keep him in intellectual sympathy 
with the undeveloped minds of his students, and this means 
chiefly two things. The more points of contact of his 
knowledge with the past experience and future plans of his 
students the teacher has at his command, the better teacher 
he will be; for he can use them, not as resting places, but 
as points of departure for the development of phases of 
his subject outside the students' experience. And secondly, 
the teacher should see his subject entire, with its parts, 
as rich in number and detail as possible, each in its proper 
place within the whole. For the students' knowledge of 



34 College Teaching 

the subject is vague and general; he is trying to place it, 
and many other new things, in some kind of a coherent 
setting; in fact, he is in college largely for the very purpose 
of working out some sort of rudimentary scheme of things. 
The duty of the college teacher is to help him in thi^ 
quite as much as to teach him a particular subject. And, 
besides, each particular subject can be best taught if ad- 
vantage is taken of every opportunity to attach it to the 
only knowledge of it the student has, vague and general 
though it be. Highly specialized and dehumanized knowl- 
edge is not as useful for the college teacher as broad and 
vital knowledge, which is, of course, much harder to ac- 
quire. Even in the case of " disciplinary " subjects, there 
is no gain in concealing the human bearings. The teacher 
should be trained to seize opportunities in the classroom 
and out to help the student, through his subject and his 
maturer life experience, to see the bearing of what he is 
learning on the life about him and on the life he is to lead. 
This is the college teacher's richest opportunity and the 
opportunity that tries him most shrewdly. If he is to rise 
to it, his entire equipment, native and acquired, must come 
into play. 

What else does the teacher need? So that he may select 
the best and continue to improve them, he needs a knowl- 
edge of the different methods and aims in the teaching of 
his subject, and, so far as possible, of the results attained 
by each. Too much of college teaching is a blind groping, 
chartless and without compass. Instead of expecting each 
inexperienced teacher to start afresh, he should set out 
armed with the epitomized and digested teaching experience 
of those that have gone before him. 

Finally, the teacher needs a sympathetic and expert 
understanding of the thinking and feeling of college 
students. This should be his controlling interest. The 
teacher, his interest in his subject, and in all else except the 
student, should be instrumental, not final. Every avail- 
able strand of continuity between studenthood and teacher- 
hood should thereafter be preserved. 



Training for College Teaching 35 



This need suggests a capital weakness of the training 
for the doctorate in philosophy as a preparation for teach- 
ing. As it proceeds it shifts the interest from under- 
graduate student to scholarly specialty, and steadily snaps 
the ties that bound the budding investigator to his college 
days. It also explains the greatness of some college 
teachers and personalities before the eighties. Their de- 
grees in arts were their licenses to teach. They suffered 
no drastic loss of touch with undergraduate thought and 
life. In the early years of their teaching this sympathetic 
and kindly understanding was fresh and strong, and they 
used it in their classroom and wove it into the tissue of 
their tutorial activities. A discerning observer of college 
faculties can even today discover in them men and women 
who entered them by the same door as these great ones of 
old, irregularly as we would say now, — without the hall- 
mark, and whose good teaching is a surprise to their 
doctored colleagues. In one institution I know of, the best 
five teachers some years ago were all of this type. The 
training of college teachers might well, it therefore seems, 
include an apprenticeship, beginning with, or in exceptional 
cases before, graduation from college. 

But the duties and opportunities of the college teacher The college 
do not stop at the door leading from his classroom. In and admin- 



addition to dealing directly with students, individually 
and in groups, and even, if possible, with their families, 
as he grows in service he becomes, as faculty member and 
committeeman, a college legislator and administrator. In 
exercising these important functions he needs the equip- 
ment that would aid him to take the central point of view, 
a background of scholarly knowledge of what education in 
general and college education in particular are in their 
methods and in their social functions and purposes. There 
is too much departmental logrolling as well as too much 
beating of the air in faculty meetings, and too many excur- 
sions into the blue in faculty legislation and administra- 
tion arrangements. The educational views of faculty 
members greatly need to be steadied, ordered, and ap- 



istrator 



36 



College Teaching 



A tenta- 
tive scheme 
of training 
for college 
teachers 



preciably broadened and deepened by a developed and 
trained habit of thinking educationally under the safe- 
guards of scientific method and on the basis of an adequate 
supply of facts. That pedagogy has made but the smallest 
beginning of gathering and ordering such facts and de- 
veloping a scientific method in this field is not a valid 
objection. These tasks are no more difficult than others 
that have been compared, as they will be, the sooner for 
being imposed. 

It is significant that coincident with sharp and wide- 
spread criticism of the American college (justified in part 
by what college teachers have been made into by their 
training) , appear demands on the part of faculties for 
more power. In this connection it may be remembered 
that autocracy is the simplest and easiest form of govern- 
ment, and that history shows that it can at least be made 
to work with less brains and training than are required 
for the working of democracy. As American colleges and 
universities have grown in complexity and responsibility, 
their faculties have lost power because they did not acquire 
the larger competence that was the indispensable condi- 
tion of even reasonably successful democratic control. It 
is highly desirable that the power of faculties should in- 
crease to the point of preponderance. But the added power 
they will probably acquire, will not be retained unless 
faculty members learn their business much better than they 
now know it in most institutions. Thomas Jefferson, when 
asked which would come to dominate, the states or the 
federal government, replied that in the long run each of 
the opposed pair would prevail in the functions in which 
it proved the more competent. 

To outline a scheme of such importance without any 
experience to examine as a basis is a very bold undertaking, 
and one that can hope for but partial success. What I 
shall propose, however, is similar to the proposals of 
Pitkin (5), Home (11), and Wolfe (14), my only 
predecessors in this rash enterprise. The general spirit 
and purpose of our proposals are the same. But we dis- 



Training for College Teaching 37 



agree more or less in details — which is fortunate, as it 
may encourage discussion of the subject, which is the thing 
most needed. Indeed, a lively sense of this need has led 
me to venture some unpopular assertions. It may also be 
admitted that the desiderata for teachers mentioned above 
are not likely to be all insured by any system of training. 

The proposal submitted for discussion is that a three- 
year graduate course be established, its spirit and purpose 
being to train young men to become college teachers. 
This course should lead to a doctorate; e. g., to the degree 
of Doctor of Philosophy, or of Doctor of Philosophy in 
Teaching, or of Docendi Doctor. What degree is selected 
is, in the long run, relatively unimportant, provided the 
course is soundly conducive to its end. 

The course might well be divided into three parts, having 
the approximate relative value in time and effort of two 
fifths, two fifths, and one fifth. These parts should pro- 
ceed simultaneously throughout the three years, the first 
being an apprenticeship — under supervision, of course — 
in the functions of the college teacher, the second a broad 
course of study and investigation of the subject to be taught, 
and the third a course of pedagogical study and investiga- 
tion. Let me suggest a minimum of detail within these 
outlines. 

The apprentice teacher would, naturally, do the least 
classroom teaching during his first year, and the most 
during his last. He would also each year " advise " a 
group of freshman in studies and in life, or cooperate with 
students in the conduct of athletics, dramatics, publication 
work, or other " activities." On all this apprentice work 
he would report, and in all he would be guided and super- 
vised appropriately by the department whose subject he 
was teaching, by the department of education, and by other 
departments concerned. This and other parts of the train- 
ing would attract others in addition to narrowly bookish 
graduates, something much to be desired (other parts would 
eliminate those not bookish enough), and would tend to 
keep alive in all apprentices an interest in students, 



38 College Teaching 

especially in student character, and to prevent them from 
thinking of students as disembodied minds. 

The course of study and investigation in the subject to 
be taught should be based on adequate undergraduate work 
in the same and allied fields, and should be something 
like the honor course in Oxford or Cambridge (or our 
old M.A. course) in its conduct and purpose; it should 
hark back to our collegiate origin in England. The work 
should be in charge of a don, a widely and wisely read 
and a very human guide, philosopher, and friend. Stated 
class meetings and precise count of hours of attendance 
should receive little emphasis. But wide reading of the 
subject, in a spirit that breeds contagion, running off 
into a study, in books, laboratories, and meetings, of the 
human and practical bearings of the subject, should be re- 
quired, and enough conference with the don should be had 
to enable him to judge and criticize the student's plan 
and amount of work, to test his mettle in handling the 
subject, and to aid him to grasp it as a whole and in its 
chief subdivisions, and to get glimpses of its bearings on 
and place in human life. This part of the training should 
lead up to and culminate in a thesis dealing with some 
major phase of the subject comprehendingly in its setting 
and connections. Naturally this program could be carried 
out most successfully with the social subjects, which lend 
themselves easily to culture, like history or philosophy, 
and less completely with the exact subjects, which are better 
fitted for precise discipline, like mathematics. But if 
treated, as far as possible, after the manner indicated, even 
the latter could be made better instruments for the training 
of college teachers than they are now in narrow specializa- 
tion for the Ph.D degree. Among returning Rhodes 
scholars some excellent material for dons could be 
found. 

The fifth of the course directed to pedagogy should in- 
clude a very brief study of the methods of teaching the 
chosen subject, with glimpses into teaching methods in 
general; and courses in the history and philosophy of edu- 



Training for College Teaching 39 

cation, with emphasis on, but by no means exclusive deal- 
ing with, the educational and social functions of the college. 
It might include an intensive investigation of some rela- 
tively simple college problem in preparation for future 
faculty membership. All this should, of course, be in- 
timately articulated with the student's apprenticeship work. 
Such a course of pedagogical study should furnish a basis 
for better teaching methods and for helpful self-criticism 
therein ; should encourage the formation of a habit of think- 
ing and working out educational problems scientifically 
with eyes open to the purpose of the college as a whole; 
and should discourage departmental selfishness in legisla- 
tion and administration. 

The college would, under this plan, have some of its incidental 
teaching done at minimum cost by student teachers, who 
should receive only the graduate scholarship or fellow- 
ship now customary for Ph.D. candidates. Care would be 
necessary to prevent the assignment to them of mere routine 
hackwork without training value. It is safe to say that, 
though slightly less mature, their services, being super- 
vised, would be more valuable than those rendered during 
their first few years of teaching by most better-paid winners 
of the doctorate of philosophy, who, if they do so at all, 
grope their way to usefulness as teachers, with little aid 
from others more experienced. 

With good teaching prepared for, required, and 
adequately rewarded (a point to be developed later), 
somewhat longer schedules could properly be assigned and 
further economy effected. Schedules would, of course, 
have to be kept short enough to allow ample time for 
reading, for some writing, and for faculty and committee 
work in later years. But time would not be required by 
college teachers for specialized research, and the freedom 
from such tasks resulting for them would be a blessed 
relief to many who are now compelled to assume a virtue 
they have not, and to conceal the love of teaching they have. 
And when we bear in mind the heavy mass of uninspired 
and unimportant hackwork that is now dumped on the 



40 



College Teaching 



Consequent 
change of 
plan in ap- 
pointments 
and promo- 
tions 



scholarly world, we shall welcome the prospect of a light- 
ened burden for ourselves. 

The need of students, especially of freshmen, for advis- 
ers is widely recognized. They come into a new freedom 
exercised in a new environment. This makes for bewilder- 
ment that involves loss of precious time and opportunities, 
and presents perils which involve possible injuries to many 
and certain injuries to some. Efforts, many and various, 
to constitute a body of advisers chosen from among faculty 
members have met with but little success. With few ex- 
ceptions the task is not congenial to those who now man 
our faculties, and for that and other reasons they are ill 
fitted for it. But a greater measure of success has been 
attained, even under present conditions, when the coopera- 
tion of volunteers from among seniors and graduate 
students has been had. This suggests that the problem 
might come nearer solution when some dependence came 
to be placed upon the services of apprentices. Such serv- 
ice would be a part of their regular work having a bear- 
ing on their future career, and would therefore be super- 
vised and rest on sustained interest and the consciousness 
that it was counting. 

Finally, young student teachers would, under proper en- 
couragement and arrangement, help materially to bridge 
the gulf, that is broader than is wholesome, between a 
faculty of mature men and young students. The mixing 
of these different generations, so far as possible, is much 
to be desired, difficult as it is to accomplish. 

This is not the place to discuss the details of appointment 
and promotion plans, interesting and important as they 
are. But it is evident that the scheme of training outlined, 
if adopted, would call for changes in present practices. 

The appointing authorities of colleges looking for young 
teachers could ascertain their strong and weak points as 
they developed during their apprenticeship in classrooms 
and in other educational activities, as well as the quality 
and trend of their scholarship. They would not rest satis- 
fied with ascertaining the minute corner of the field of 



T?mning for College Teaching 41 

philosophy, history, or physics in which a man recom- 
mended had done research. Records could be kept throw- 
ing much-needed light on the teaching ability, scholarship, 
and personality of candidates for appointment. In 
selecting college teachers, appointing authorities would 
value this evidence and would come to prefer teaching 
power to investigating ability. 

Moreover, the record keeping, and, no doubt, some of 
the supervision begun during the apprentice years would 
continue during the early instructorial years. This would 
render it possible to evaluate and to value effectiveness in 
teaching in making promotions. Ambitious teachers would 
no longer be practically forced, as their only resort, to 
neglect their students and give their best energies to publi- 
cation in order to make a name and get a call, in the in- 
terest of promotion. The expert teacher would have a 
chance and a dignity equal to that of the skilled investigator. 
The individual could follow, and not be penalized for so 
doing, his own bent and the line of his highest capacity. 

The training now given in graduate schools here and Training 
elsewhere for the doctorate in philosophy will, of course, gators 
continue, and increase rather than diminish. Investigators 
will be preferred in research, in universities, and in some 
colleges and college departments. They will be increas- 
ingly prized in the government service and in important 
branches of industry. The recent terrible experiences burn 
into our minds the imperative need strong nations have 
of exact knowledge and of skill that has a scientific edge. 
And the specific training for these great tasks will be 
stronger when it is based on a college course in which 
highly effective and whole-hearted teaching is valued and 
rewarded. 

Sidney E. Mezes 

College of the City of New York 



42 College Teaching 



Bibliography 

Anonymous. Confessions of One Behind the Times. Atlantic, Vol. 
3, pages 353-356, March, 1913. 

Canby, H. S. The Professor. Harpers, April, 1913. 

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bulletin 
No. 2, May, 1908, pages 55-57. 

Flexner, Abraham. Adjusting the College to American Life. Sci- 
ence, Vol. 29, pages 361-372. 

Handschin, C. H. Inbreeding in the Instructional Corps of Amer- 
ican Colleges and Universities. Science, Vol. 32, pages 707-709. 
November, 1910. 

Holliday, Carl. Our " Doctored " Colleges. School and Society, 
Vol. 2, pages 782-784. November 27, 1915. 

HoRNE, Herman H. The Study of Education by Prospective College 
Instructors. School Review, Vol. 16, March, 1908, pages 162- 
170. 

Pitkin, W. B. Training College Teachers. Popular Science^ Vol. 
74, pages 588-595. June, 1909. 

Report of the Committee on Standards of American Universities. 
Science, Vol. 29, page 172. November 17, 1908. 

Robinson, Mabel L. Need of Supervision in College Teaching. 
School and Society, Vol. 2, pages 514-519, October 9, 1915. 

Sanderson, E. D. Definiteness of Appointment and Tenure. Sci- 
ence, Vol. 39, pages 890-896, June, 1914. 

Stewart, Charles A. Appointment and Promotion of College In- 
structors. Educational Review, Vol. 44, 1912, pages 249-256. 

WiLCZYNSKi, E. J. Appointments in College and Universities. Sci- 
ence, February 28, 1909; Vol. 29, pages 336ff. 

Wolfe, A. B. The Graduate School, Faculty Responsibility, and the 
Training of University Teachers. School and Society, Septem- 
ber 16, 1916. 



Ill 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COLLEGE 
TEACHING 



THE investigator of educational practices and methods 
of teaching is impressed with an unmistakable educa- 
tional anti-climax, for the conviction grows on him that 
elementary school teaching is on a relatively high plane, 
that secondary school teaching is not as effective, and that 
collegiate teaching, with rare exceptions, is ineffective and 
in urgent need of reform. A superficial survey of educa- 
tional literature of the last ten years shows that while the 
problem of the high school is now receiving earnest atten- 
tion, elementary education continues to absorb the earnest 
efforts of an army of vitally interested investigators. The 
field of college pedagogics is still virgin soil, and no sig- 
nificant or extensive program for improved methods of 
teaching has yet been advanced. 

Three earnest and intelligent students representing three 
colleges of undisputed standing were asked informally about 
their instructors for the current semester. Nothing was said 
to make these students aware that their judgment would hold 
any significance beyond the friendly conversation. The 
summary of opinions is offered, not because the investiga- 
tion is complete and affords a basis for scientific conclusion, 
but because it reflects typical college teaching in three recog- 
nized institutions of more than average standing. 



status of 
teaching in 
the colleges 



Student No. I 
Teacher A : A pop- 
ular and interesting 
teacher, talks enthusi- 
astically but talks all 
the time. Lessons as- 
signed are not heard. 
Students seldom recite. 
Written quizzes on 
themes of assigned 
reading are rated by 
an assistant. The work 
comes back with an A, 
a C, or a D, but we do 



Student No. II 
T packer A : A good 
teacher of mathematics. 
He assigns a new les- 
son for home study. 
The next day he asks 
auestions on this lesson. 
The answers are writ- 
ten out on the black- 
boards. After fifteen 
minutes all students 
take their seats and the 
work on the blackboard 
is taken up for expla- 

43 



Student No. Ill 
Teacher A : A very 
popular teacher of 
English. If the final 
examination is given by 
another teacher. I may 
not have enough spe- 
cific facts to pass. 
We began Chaucer last 
week. He spent a 
good part of each ses- 
sion reading to us. 
All of us were sur- 
prised to find how 



44 



College Teaching 



Student No. I 

not know why the rat- 
ing was given. Fre- 
quently two students 
who worked together 
are marked B and D 
respectively for the 
same work. Some- 
times a student who 
" cribbed " his outline 
from another who actu- 
ally " worked it up " 
receives a higher mark 
than was given for the 
original. 



Teacher B : Rather 
an interesting teacher ; 
assigns lessons from a 
book. At the begin- 
ning of the hour he 
asks questions on the 
text but is soon carried 
away and rambles 
along for the period, 
touching on every sub- 
ject. We never com- 
plete a chapter or 
topic. The succeeding 
hour we take the next 
chapter, which meets 
the same fate. Writ- 
ten tests determine the 
students' rank. The 
grade for the written 
test is announced, but 
the papers are not re- 
turned and one never 
knows why the papers 
were rated C or D. 



Teacher C: A con- 
scientious teacher in 
physics. He assigns a 
definite lesson for each 
recitation of the term. 



Student No. II 

nation. He explains 
every difficulty very 
clearly. We rarely 
cover the lesson. Some 
topics go unexplained 
because during the next 
hour the blackboard 
problems are based on 
the new lesson. If I 
understood the second 
half of each lesson as 
clearly as the first, I 
would feel hopeful of a 
good grade in the final 
examination. 



Teacher B : A dry 
course in Art History 
and Appreciation. We 
take up the history of 
architecture, painting, 
and sculpture. The 
names of the best art- 
ists are mentioned, and 
their many works con- 
fuse us. We memorize 
Praxiteles, Phidias, 

Myron, the ancient 
cairns, the parts of an 
Egyptian temple. Pic- 
tures are shown on the 
screen. I elected this 
course in the hope that 
it would teach me 
something about pic- 
tures, how to judge 
them and give me 
standards of beauty, 
etc., but it has been 
history and not appre 
ciation so far. We do 
not see any beauty in 
the pictures of old 
madonnas. Even the 
religious ones among 
us say this. 

Teacher (7: A good, 
clear, effective lecturer 
in chemistry. Everv 
lesson we learn a defi- 
nite principle and its 



Student No. Ill 
much more the text 
meant than after our 
own reading. In the 
last session we went to 
our book on literature 
and tried to justify the 
characterization which 
the author gives of 
Chaucer. The class 
agreed with all in the 
book except in one 
characterization. In the 
composition work we 
took up the structure 
of short narratives. 
The assignment was to 
find narratives in cur- 
rent periodicals, in the 
writings of standard 
authors, in newspapers, 
and then attempt to 
find whether the struc- 
ture we studied was 
followed. In each case 
we had to justify any 
departure from the 
standard. There was 
little time for the foot- 
notes in Chaucer. I 
hope we are not asked 
for these on the final 
examination. 

Teacher B ; A very 
conscientious teacher 
of chemistry. He 

gives us a ten-minute 
written quiz each hour 
on the work in the 
book or on the matter 
discussed in the last 
lecture. The rest of 
the hour is spent in 
explanation of difficult 
points and in the appli- 
cation of what we 
learned, to industry 
and physiologj\ It is 
surprising to see the 
interest the class shows 
in the chemical expla- 
nations of things we 
never noticed before. 



Teacher C : A schol- 
arly instructor in his- 
tory. He assigns 
thirty to forty pages in 
English history, and 



General Principles of College Teaching 45 



Student No. I 
At the beginning of 
the hour students go to 
the board to write out 
answers to questions on 
the lesson. The hour 
is spent listening to the 
recitation of each stu- 
dent and the explana- 
tion of difficult points. 
We never cover more 
than one half of the 
lesson ; sometimes only 
one third. The next 
hour the questions are 
on the new lesson, not 
on the incompleted 
portion of the former 
lesson. My knowledge 
of physics is punctu- 
ated by areas of igno- 
rance. These alternate 
with topics that I 
think I understand 
clearly. 

Teacher D : A quiet, 
modest man. Sits back 
comfortably in his seat 
and asks questions on 
assigned texts. The 
questions review the 
text, and he explains in 
further detail the facts 
in the book. The con- 
scientious and capable 
student finds him su- 
perfluous ; the indiffer- 
ent student remains un- 
moved by his phleg- 
matic presentation ; the 
poor student finds him 
a help; the shirk who 
listens and takes notes 
is saved studying at 
home. 



Teacher E : A good 
teacher of Latin. 

He explains the work, 
hears the lessons, gives 
drills, calls on almost 
everybody every hour. 
The written work is re- 
turned properly cor- 
rected and rated. 



Student No. II 

application. The lab- 
oratory work of each 
week is related to the 
lecture and throws in- 
teresting side lights on 
it. We have quiz sec- 
tions once a week. 
Here the work is oral 
and written. 



Teacher D : A very 
strict teacher of Eng- 
lish literature. He as- 
signs text for study, 
and we must be pre- 
pared for detailed ques- 
tions on each of the 
great writers. He is 
very strict and de- 
tailed. We had to 
know all the fifteen 
qualities of Macaulay's 
style. " No, we did 
not read Macaulay this 
term ; we study from a 
history of English lit- 
erature that tells us all 
about the master writ- 



Tcacher E : A quiet, 
dignified gentleman 

%vho teaches us psy- 
chology. A chapter is 
assigned in the book, 
and the hour is spent 
hearing students recite 
on the text. He stacks 
closely to the book. 
He explains clearly 
when the book is not 
clear or not specific 
enough. The hours 
drag, for the book is 
good and those who 
studied the lessons 
weary at what seems to 
us needless repetition. 



Student No. Ill 

then he lectures to us 
about the topics dis- 
cussed by the author. 
He points out errors in 
dates and places. Occa- 
sionally he calls on a 
student. At the end of 
each month he gives a 
written test. We re- 
member little of what 
we learned and must 
" bone away " at about 
200 to 300 pages. 
His English is delight- 
ful and we enjoy listen- 
ing at times, but I 
seem to retain so 
little. " Yes, half the 
term is up. We are 
beginning the reign of 
Henry VII." 



Teacher D : A very 
enthusiastic lecturer in 
economics. He ex- 
plains the important 
principles in economics. 
We follow in a printed 
syllabus, so that it is 
unnecessary to take 
notes. He talks well 
and makes things clear. 
We are given assign- 
ments in S 's " Ele- 
ments of Economics," 
on which we are ques- 
tioned by another 
teacher. " Is the work 
in the quiz section re- 
lated directly to the lec- 
tures ? Sometimes. No, 
we do not take current 
economic problems. 
These are given in a 
later elective course." 

Teacher E : An in- 
structor in psychology'. 
His hours are weary 
and dreary. A chap- 
ter is assigned in 
X's " Elements of Psy- 
chology." He asks a 
question or two and 
then repeats what the 
author tells us. even 
using the illustrations 
and diagrams found 
in the text. Sometimes 
a student reads a paper 
which he prepared. 
" No, we do not get 
very much oxit of these 
papers read by stu- 
dents. But then we 
get just as little from 
the instructor. No, we 



46 



College Teaching 



Student No. I 



Teacher F: One 
cannot pass judgment 
on this teacher of me- 
chanical drawing. He 
gives out a problem, 
works a type on the 
board, and then dis- 
tributes the plates. 
We draw. He heli)s 
us when we ask for 
aid, otherwise he walks 
about the room. I 
suppose one cannot 
show teaching ability 
in such a subject. 



Student No. II 



Teacher F : A learn- 
ed Latin scholar who 
is very enthusiastic 
about his specialty. 
The students exhibit 
cheerful tolerance. He 
assigns a given num- 
ber of lines per day. 
These Ave prepare at 
home. In class we 
give a translation in 
English that has dis- 
torted phrases and 
clauses, lest we be ac- 
cused of dishonesty in 
preparation. The rest 
of the time is spent on 
questions of syntax, 
references, footnotes, 
and the identification 
of the real and myth- 
ological characters in 
the text. The teacher 
is animated and ef- 
fective. 



Student No. Ill 
never apply the psy- 
chology to our own 
thinking nor to teach- 
ing nor to the behavior 
of children or adults." 

Teacher F : A for- 
bidding but very strict 
Latin teacher. His 
questions are fast and 
numerous and the hesi- 
tating student is lost. 
He assigns at least 
twenty-five per cent 
more per lesson than 
any other instructor. 
The hour is spent in 
translating, parsing, 

and quizzing on histo- 
rical and mythological 
allusions. Every "pony" 
user is soon caught, be- 
cause he is asked so 
many questions on each 
sentence. There is a 
distinct relief when the 
hour is over because 
he is constantly at you. 
"Will I take the next 
course in Latin ? Not 
unless I must. This 
is prescribed work. It 
can't end too soon for 
me, nor for the others 
in the class." 



Causes of 
ineffective 
college 
teaching 



The Student of scientific and statistical measurements in 
education may object to attaching any importance to these 
informal characterizations of college teachers by under- 
graduates. College teachers interested in the pedagogical 
aspects of their subject, and college administrators who 
spend time observing class instruction will concede that 
these young men were not at all unfortunate in their teach- 
ers. The significance of these characterizations is not that 
college teachers vary in teaching efficiency, but rather that 
inefficient college teaching is general, and that the causes of 
this inefficiency are such as respond readily to simple 
remedial measures very well known to elementary and high 
school teachers. 

It may be well to note the chief causes of ineffective col- 
lege teaching before directing attention to a remedial pro- 
gram: 

(a) Many college teachers hold to be true the time- 



General Principles of College Teaching 47 

honored fallacy that the only equipment for successful 
teaching is a thorough knowledge of the subject. They do 
not stop to square their belief with actual facts. They over- 
look the examples of their colleagues possessed of undis- 
puted scholarship who are failures in the classroom. They 
fail to realize that there are psychological and pedagogical 
aspects of the teaching art which demand careful organiza- 
tion, skilful gradation and a happy selection of illustrations 
intimately related to the lives of the students. 

(b) Closely related to this first cause of ineffective 
teaching is a lack of sympathetic understanding of the 
student's viewpoint. The scholarly teacher, deep in the 
intricacies and speculations of his specialty, is often im- 
patient with the groping of the beginner. He may not 
realize that the student before him, apparently indifferent 
to the most vital aspects of his subject, has potentialities 
for development in it. His interest in his researches and 
his vision of the far-reaching human relations of his sub- 
ject may blind him to the difficulties that beset the path 
of the beginner. 

(c) The inferiority of college teaching in many institu- 
tions can often be traced to the absence of constructive 
supervision. The supervising officer in elementary and 
secondary schools makes systematic visits to the class- 
rooms of young or ineffective teachers, observes their work, 
offers remedial suggestions, and tries to infuse a profes- 
sional interest in the technique of teaching. In the college 
such supervision would usually stir deep resentment. The 
college teacher is, in matters of teaching, a law unto him- 
self. He sees little of the actual teaching of his colleagues; 
they see as little of his. His contact with the head of 
his department, and his departmental and faculty meet- 
ings,- are usually limited to discussions of college policy 
and of the sequence and content of courses. Methods of 
teaching are rarely, if ever, brought up for discussion. 
The results are inevitable. Weaknesses in teaching are 
perpetuated, while the devices and practices of an effective 
teacher remain unknown to his colleagues. 



48 College Teaching 

id) A fourth factor which accounts for much of the in- 
efficiency in college pedagogics is made the thesis of 
Dr. Mezes' chapter on " The Training of the College 
Teacher." The college teacher, unlike teachers in other 
grades of an educational system, is expected to teach with- 
out a knowledge of educational aims and ideals, and with- 
out a knowledge of the psychological principles which 
should guide him in his work. The prospective college 
teacher, having given evidence of scholarship alone, has 
intrusted to him, the noisy, expressive, and rapidly de- 
veloping youth. We set up no standards aside from char- 
acter and scholarship. We do not demand evidence of 
teaching ability, a knowledge of applied psychology and 
of accepted teaching practices, skill in presentation, power 
of organizing material in graded sequence, or ability to 
frame a series of questions designed to stimulate and sus- 
tain the self-activity of the pupils. The born college 
teacher remains the successful teacher. The poor college 
teacher finds no agent which tends to raise his teaching 
to a higher level. The temperamentally unfit are not 
weeded out. But teaching is an art, and like all arts it 
requires conscientious professional preparation, the mastery 
of underlying scientific principles, and practice under super- 
vision scrupulous in its attention to technique. 

We have here outlined a few of the causes which 
keep college teaching on a low plane. The remedial 
measures are in each case too obvious to mention. It re- 
mains for college authorities to formulate a well-conceived 
and adjustable program of means and m.ethods of ridding 
college teaching of those forces which keep it in a dis- 
couraging state. It is our purpose in the remainder of 
this chapter not to evolve a system of pedagogics, but rather 
to touch on the most vital principles in teaching which must 
be borne in mind if college teaching is to be rendered peda- 
gogically comparable to elementary and secondary teaching. 
We shall confine ourselves to teaching practices which are 
applicable to all subjects in the college curriculum. 



General Principles o f College Teaching 49 

PRINCIPLES IN COLLEGE TEACHING 

One of the very first elements in good teaching is the ^ clearly 
clear recognition of a well-defined aim that gives purpose atS'^musf 
and direction to all that is attempted in a lesson or in a <^°"tr?iaii 
period. The chief cause of poor teaching is aimless teach- ^^^ '"^ 
ing, in which the sole object seems to be to fill the allotted 
time with talking about the facts of a given subject. We 
sit patiently through a recitation in English literature. 
Act I, Scene 1 of Hamlet had been assigned for home study 
and is now, the text for the hour. Questions are asked 
on the dramatic structure of this scene, on versification, on 
the meaning of words and expressions now obsolete, on 
peculiarities of syntax, and finally a question or two on a 
character portrayal. The bell brings these questions to 
an abrupt end. Ask teacher and students the aim of all 
these questions. To the former, they are means of test- 
ing the students' knowledge of a variety of facts of language 
and literature; to the latter they mean little, and serve 
only to repress a living interest and appreciation of living 
literary text. How much more effective the hour in English 
literature would have been if the entire act had been as- 
signed with a view to giving the students an insight into the 
dramatic structure of each scene in this act and of the act 
as a whole. All the questions would then bear on dramatic 
movement, on the dramatist's technique, on his way of 
arousing interest in his story, on devices for giving the 
cause and the development of the action. In the opening 
scene we read: 

Elsinore. A Platform before the Castle. 
Francisco at his post. Enter to him Bernardo. 

Ber. Who's there? 

Fran. Nay, answer me ; stand, and unfold yourself. 
Ber. Long live the King ! 
Fran. Bernardo? 
Ber. He. 

Fran. You come most carefully upon your hour. 
. Ber. 'Tis now struck twelve; get thee to bed, Francisco. 



50 



College Teaching 



The educa- 
tional aim 
vs. the in- 
structional 
aim 



Fran, For this relief much thanks : 'tis bitter cold. And I am sick 
at heart. 

Ber. Have you had a quiet guard? 

Here we see the guard on duty challenged by his relief, 
a most unusual procedure. Why does this experienced 
guard so far forget the customary forms as to challenge 
the guard on duty? What possible reason can there be 
for this? How would you read the second line? What 
words must be emphasized to show the surprise of the 
challenged guard? If the entire hour were given to the 
whole of Act I and all the questions sought to reveal 
to the students Shakespeare's power of dramatic structure, 
a definite and lasting impression would be carried away. 
Act I should be assigned again, but with a different aim. 
The teacher now seeks to make clear to the student the 
dramatist's method of character portrayal. A third hour 
may be spent on certain portions of this act in which 
attention is given to significant facts of language, choice of 
words, or poetic form. When a guiding aim controls, all 
questions, suggestions, explanations, and illustrations tend 
to create in the mind of the pupil a rich and unified impres- 
sion. Where no distinct aim gives direction to the work, 
the student is confused by a variety of facts — isolated facts 
— that are displaced by another group o'f disjointed bits 
of information. Aimless teaching leads to mental wander- 
ing on the part of the student; teaching governed by a 
definite aim leads to mental development and to the acquisi- 
tion of new viewpoints and new power. 

We must distinguish clearly between the general or edu- 
cational aim and the specific or instructional aim. The 
former sums up the hope of an entire course or an entire 
subject. In the teaching of literature we hope to develop 
a vital interest in reading, a discriminating taste, an en- 
livened imagination and a quickened perception which en- 
able the student to visualize the situations and to ac- 
quire the thought on the printed page. The instruc- 
tional aim, however, is much more specific; it posits a 
task that can be accomplished in a very limited time; it 



General Principles of College Teaching 51 

seeks to give an insight into Shakespeare's mastery of words, 
or into his power of character portrayal, or into his 
methods of enhancing dramatic interest. Each of these 
two types of aims has its unmistakable influence on methods 
of teaching. 

What aim should we select to guide us in formulating The variety 
principles of collegiate teaching? The question is almost tha^mly 
basic, for the selection of a proper aim gives color and govern 
direction to all our teaching. In brief, the aim may be 
one of the following: 

(a) The informational aim. A given course in chemistry 
or physics may be designed to sum up for the student the 
vital facts necessary for an intelligent comprehension of 
common phenomena. With such an aim, it is obvious that 
only so much laboratory work will be assigned as will give 
the student a general knowledge of the tools and methods 
of laboratory work; that the major portion of the work will 
be divided into occasional lectures, regular book assign- 
ments, and extensive applications of knowledge gained to 
surrounding chemical and physical phenomena. A 
language course may seek to give pupils a stock of words 
designed to develop power to read the language in a very 
short time. Obviously, grammatical work and translations 
into the mother tongue will now be minimized, and those 
devices which give the eye the power to find thought in 
new symbols will be emphasized. There is no standard 
for determining the relative importance of this informa- 
tional or utilitarian aim when compared to other aims. 
The significant thing is, not so much to discover its rela- 
tive importance, but, having adopted it, to devise methods 
which clearly tend to bring the students to an eff^ective 
realization of it. 

ih) The disciplinary aim. On the other hand, the con- 
trolling aim in any subject may be to develop the power 
to reason about natural phenomena, the power to ob- 
serve, and the power to discriminate between vital and 
inconsequential details. If this be the aim, the assign- 
ment of subject matter must be reduced, the phenomena 



52 College Teaching 

■ - . - . - ■ -- - ■ ' ■ 

studied must be submitted in the forms of problems, first- 
hand observations must be made, and students must be led 
to see the errors in their observations and their reasoning. 
The course which is extensive in subject matter and which 
relies on the lecture method sacrifices mental discipline for 
information. From the teaching point of view, the result 
of the time-honored quarrel between the disciplinists and 
the utilitarians is not so important as the adoption of a 
definite aim, and the formulation of consistent methods of 
teaching in order to attain that aim. Ineffective teaching 
is not caused by the selection of the one aim or of the 
other, but by systems of instruction devoid of any aim at 
all. 

(c) The appreciative or aesthetic aim. It is obvious that 
a subject may be taught for the power it develops for 
aesthetic appreciation of the arts of lifco We have here a 
legitimate aim of coordinate importance with the two pre- 
ceding ones; and if we adopt it, the vital thing in teaching 
is to allow this appreciative aim to mold all instructional 
effort. It is obvious that a college course in aesthetics must 
be inspirational, must seek to develop a real appreciation 
of the beauty of line, of color and of sound. Such a course 
must, therefore, encourage contact with the products of art, 
rather than promote the study of texts on the history of any 
of the arts. So, too, courses in music or in literature which 
do not send the student away with an intense desire to hear, 
to see, to feel the masterpieces of music or literature must be 
judged dismal failures. The formalization of an art course 
given to the general student, kills the live material and 
leaves the student himself cold. 

id) The aim to teach technique. An effective college 
course may select for its aim the development of the 
technique of a given subject. It is obvious that a science 
course governed by this aim will emphasize the laboratory 
method at the expense of information; that a course in 
the social sciences will seek to cover less ground but will 
develop in the student the power to find facts and use them 
to formulate an intelligent conclusion; that a course in 



General Principles of College Teaching 53 

biology will minimize names, classifications and structures, 
but will emphasize field and laboratory work and the modes 
of utilizing the data thus discovered. We must repeat the 
statement made before, that no one can set himself up as the 
final arbiter of the claims of these contending aims. They 
are all vitally necessary for a thorough understanding of 
life's problems. The significant conclusion for teaching 
is that one or more of these aims must be consciously chosen 
and that content and method must be determined by them 
absolutely. Teaching for the sake of teaching consumes 
time and makes drafts on energy, but it leaves the student 
no richer in power and with no truer understanding. 

It is obvious that no general law can be formulated for should the 
the adjustment of aims to the needs of students. Teachers J^ fo^j."^°*^^" 
have usually found it necessary to change the aim, the varying 
content, and the method of a course according to the needs ftudents? 
of different classes of students. In one of our colleges 
science students are required to take two years of Latin. 
The course offered these young men gives the ordinary 
drill in grammar, translation, and analysis of Caesar, Cicero, 
and Vergil, as well as practice in prose composition in which 
nondescript and disjointed English sentences, grammati- 
cally correct, are turned into incorrect Latin. This de- 
scription, without any changes whatever, applies also to the 
course given in the introductory years in Latin to students 
specializing in the arts. Even a superficial analysis re- 
veals a different set of needs in the two classes of students 
which can be served only by a corresponding difference 
in content and mode of teaching. A student who takes 
French or German because he wants enough mastery of these 
languages to enable him to read in foreign journals about 
the progress of his specialty must be given a course which 
appeals to the eye and minimizes the grammatical and con- 
versational phases of these languages. 

There are courses that are foundational and that must 
therefore be governed by an eclectic aim. In the first course 
in college physics it is obvious that we must teach the 
necessary facts of the subject as well as its method. These 



54 College Teaching 

aspects of the work must be emphasized with equal force 
for all students; no differentiation need be made for future 
medical or engineering students or for prospective teachers 
of the subject in secondary schools. Generally speak- 
ing, initial courses in a department are governed by an 
eclectic aim, but in the advanced courses there must be 
constant adjustment to the needs of various groups. An 
eclectic aim can be as effective an instrument in enhancing 
the quality of teaching as a single, clear-cut aim, provided 
there is a clear recognition of the relative importance 
of the ends set up, and provided a definite plan is evolved 
to attain them. 

The aim or aims of a subject or a lesson, once formu- 
lated, must always be kept before the students as well 
as before the teacher. Every pupil must know the ends 
to be attained in the course he is taking, and as work 
progresses he must experience a growing realization that 
the class is moving toward these ends. The subject matter 
of the course, the method of instruction, the assigned task, 
now glow with interest which springs from work clearly 
motivated. The average student plods through his semes- 
ter from a sense of duty or obedience rather than from 
a conviction of the worth of both subject matter and 
method. 
Value of ]\Jq|- Qjjly must the general aim be indicated to the student, 

fined aims but he must also be made acquainted with the specific 
aim. Where students have been acquainted with the spe- 
cific task that must be accomplished in a given period, 
concentration and cooperation with the instructor are easier; 
the students can, at stages in the lesson, anticipate succeeding 
steps; their answers have greater relevancy, their thought 
is more sequential and flows more readily along the path 
planned by the instructor. A specific aim for each lesson 
makes for economy, for it is a standard of relevancy for 
both student and teacher. The student whose answer or 
observation is irrelevant is asked to recall the aim of the 
lesson and to judge the pertinence of his contribution. 
The instructor given to wandering far afield finds that a 



General Principles of College Teaching 55 



clearly fixed aim is an aid in keeping him in the pre- 
scribed path. Too many college hours, especially in the 
social sciences, find the instructor beginning with his sub- 
ject but ending anywhere in the field of human knowledge. 
These wanderings are entertaining enough, but they dis- 
sipate the energies of the students and produce a mental 
flabbiness already too well developed in the average college 
student. 

A second factor which contributes much toward the 
effectiveness of college teaching is the principle of moti- 
vation. So long as most of the college course is prescribed, 
course by course, students will be found pursuing certain 
studies without an intelligent understanding of their social 
or mental worth. Ask the student " doing " prescribed logic 
to explain the value of the course. In friendly or inti- 
mate discussion with him, elicit his conception of the 
utilitarian or disciplinary worth of the prescribed Latin 
or mathematics in the arts course. He sees no relation 
between the problems of life and the daily lessons in many 
of these subjects. He submits to the teacher's attempts to 
graft this knowledge upon his intellectual stock merely be- 
cause he has learned that the easiest course is to bend 
to authority. Instruction in too many college subjects is 
based, not on intelligent and voluntary attention, but on 
the discipline maintained by the institution or by the in- 
structor. It is obvious that such instruction is stultifying 
to the teacher and can never devel-op in the student a liberal 
and cultured outlook upon life. 

The principle of motivation in teaching seeks to justify 
to the student the experience that is presented as part of 
his college course. It is obvious that this motivation need 
not always be explained in terms of utilitarian values. A 
student of college age can be made to realize the mental, the 
cultural, or the inspirational values that justify the prescrip- 
tion of certain courses. The college instructor who tries to 
motivate courses in the appreciation of music or painting 
finds no great difficulty in leading his students to an enthusi- 
astic conviction of their inspirational value. It is well 



Motivation 
in college 
teaching 



56 College Teaching 

worth taking the student into our confidence in these mat- 
ters of aim and value. We must become more tolerant of 
the thoughtful student who makes honest inquiry as to the 
value of any of the presented courses. We must learn to 
regard such questions as signs of growing seriousness and 
increasing maturity and not as signs of impertinence. We 
constantly ask ourselves questions about the round of our 
daily task; we seek to know thoroughly their uses, their 
values, their meaning in our lives. Clear conception of use 
or value in teaching is as vital as it is in life — for what is 
teaching if not the process of repeating life's experiences? 

In the principle of motivation lies the most successful 
solution of the problem of interest in teaching. We have 
too long persisted in the " sugarcoating " conception of 
interest. We have regarded it as a process of " making 
agreeable." Interest has therefore been looked upon as a 
fictitious element introduced into teaching merely to in- 
veigle the mind of the student into a consideration of what 
we are offering it. Our modern psychology teaches a truer 
conception of interest: a feeling accompanying self-expres- 
sion. Interest has been defined as a feeling of worth in ex- 
perience. Where this feeling of worth is aroused, the in- 
dividual expresses his activity to attain the end that he 
perceives. Every act, every effort, to attain this end is 
accompanied by a distinctive feeling known as interest. 
When a class is quiet and gives itself to the teacher, it is 
obedient and polite, but not necessarily interested. The 
class that looks tolerantly at the stereopticon views that the 
instructor presents, or listens to the reading of the profes- 
sor of English, is amused but not necessarily interested. 
But when the students ask questions about the pictures or 
ask the professor of English for further references, then 
have we evidence of real interest. Interest is, therefore, an 
active attitude toward life's experience. Rational motiva- 
tion is almost a guarantee of this active attitude of interest. 

Intelligent motivation in teaching has far-reaching values 
for both student and teacher. It stirs interest and guar- 
antees attention and thus tends to keep aroused the activity 



General Principles of College Teaching 57 

of the students. It establishes an end toward which all 
eflort of teacher and student must bend. It enables the 
student to follow a line of thought more intelligently, and 
occasionally to anticipate conclusions. For the teacher it 
serves as a standard, in terms of which he reorganizes his 
subject matter, judges the value of each topic, and omits 
socially useless matter which has too long been retained 
in the course in the fond hope that it will in some way 
develop the mind. 

The instructor who strives to motivate the subject matter Beginning 
he teaches usually begins with that phase of the subject ofconuct" 
which is most intimately related to the student's life and 
environment. Every subject worth teaching crosses the stu- 
dent's life at some point. The contacts between pupil and 
subject afford the most natural and the most effective 
starting points in the teaching of any subject. 

The subject matter in a college course is too frequently 
so organized that it presents points of discrepancy be- 
tween itself and the student. To the college student life 
is not classified and systematized to a nicety. Experiences 
occur in more or less accidental but natural sequence. 
Scientific classification is the product of a mature mind 
possessing mastery of a given portion of the field of knowl- 
edge. To thrust the student, who is just finding his way 
in a new course, into a thoroughly scientific classification 
of a subject, is to present in the introduction what should 
come in the conclusion. 

Many a student taking his introductory course in psy- 
chology begins with a definition of the subject, its re- 
lation to all social and physical sciences, and its classifi- 
cation. All these are aspects of the subject which 
the mind conversant with it sees clearly and understands 
thoroughly, but which the inexperienced student accepts 
merely because the facts are printed in his text-book. The 
youthful mind is concerned with the present and with 
the immediate environment. Too many of our college 
courses, in the initial stages, transport the student into 
the realm of theory or into the distant past. The 



58 



College Teaching 



point of 
contact 



Student cannot orientate himself in this new environment 
and is soon lost on the highways and byways of classifica- 
tion; to him the subject becomes a study of words rather 
than of vital ideas. Why must the introductory course in 
philosophy begin with the ancient philosophers, and give the 
major part of the term to the study of dead philosophers 
and their theories long since refuted and discarded, while 
vital modern philosophic thought is crowded into the last 
few sessions of the semester? 
of"maxr°^^ '^^^ pedagogical significance of beginning at the point 
Begin at the of contact can best be understood and appreciated by illus- 
trations of actual teaching conditions. Most initial courses 
in economics begin by positing that economics is the science 
of the consumption, distribution, and production of wealth. 
The student is told that in earlier systems of economics 
production was studied as the initial economic process, but 
that the more modern view makes consumption the starting 
process. All this the student takes on faith. He does not 
really see its bearings and its implications; he is as uncon- 
cerned with the new formulation as he is with the old; 
he feels at once far removed from economics. The suc- 
ceeding lessons study economic laws with little reference 
to the economic life that the student lives. In a later 
chapter he learns a definition of wages, the forces that de- 
termine wage, and the mode of computing the share of the 
total produce that must go to wages. 

Here we have a course that does not begin at the point 
of contact, that presents the very discrepancies between 
itself and the student that were noted before. How can 
we overcome them? By proceeding psychologically. The 
instructor refers to two or three important wage disputes 
in current industrial life; these conflicts are analyzed; 
the contending demands are studied, and the forces con- 
trolling the adoption of a new wage scale are noted. After 
this study of actual economic conditions the students are 
led to formulate their own definition of wages, qnd to dis- 
cover the forces that determine wage. Their conclusions 
are of course tentative. The textbook or textbooks are 



General Principles of College Teaching 59 



consuhed in order to verify the formulations and the con- 
clusions of the class. Thus the course is developed entirely 
through a series of contacts with economic life. The final 
topic in the course is the formulation of a definition of 
economics. Now the class sums up all that it has seen 
and learned of economics during the year. The cold 
and empty definition now glows with meaning. Such a 
course awakens an intelligent interest in economic life; 
it develops a mode of thought in social sciences. and a sense 
of self-reliance; it teaches the student that all conclusions 
are tentative and constantly. subject to verification; it fosters 
a critical attitude toward printed text. 

The college graduate who studied college mathematics, 
advanced algebra, trigonometry, analytical geometry, and 
calculus, looks back with satisfaction at work completed. 
Each of these subjects seemed to have little or no relation 
to the other; each was kept in a water-tight compartment. 
He remembers few, if any, of the formulae, equations, and 
symbols. He recalls vividly his admiration of the author's 
ingenious method of deriving equations. Every succeeding 
theorem, formula, or equation was another puzzle in a 
subject which seemed to be composed of a series of diffi- 
cult, unrelated, and unapplied mathematical proofs. The 
course ended, the mass of data was soon obliterated from 
the mind's active possessions. 

What is the meaning of it all? What is its relation to 
life? There is no doubt that much of this mathematics 
has its application to life's needs, and that these successive 
subjects of mathematics are thoroughly interdependent. 
But nothing in the mode of instruction leads the student 
to see either the application or the interrelation of all this 
higher mathematics. Would it not be better to give a 
single course called mathematics rather than these successive 
subjects? Would it not be more enlightening if each new 
mathematical principle were taught through a situation in 
building, engineering, or mechanics so that the student 
would at all times see the intimate relation between mathe- 
matical law and physical forces? Would not the disci- 



60 



College Teaching 



Beginning 
at the point 
of contact 
relates the 
subject to 
the life of 
the student 



plinary values of mathematics be intensified for the student 
by teaching it in a way that presents a quantitative inter- 
pretation of the daily phenomena in his experience? 

Teachers of philosophy and psychology too often fall 
into a formalism that robs their subject of all its vital- 
izing influences. Many a student enters his course in 
logic with high hopes. At last he is to learn the laws of 
thought which will render him keen in detection of fallacies 
and potent in the presentation of argument. How bitter 
is his disappointment when he finds his course dissipated 
in definitions and classifications. His logic gives itself 
to the discussion of such patent fallacies as, " A good teacher 
knows his subject; Williams knows his subject, therefore 
he is a good teacher." Day after day he proves the error 
in every form of stupidity or the truth of what is axio- 
matic. He tires of " Gold is a metal " and " Socrates is 
mortal." Few courses in logic have the courage to break 
away from the traditional formalism and to begin each new 
principle or fundamental concept of logic by analyzing edi- 
torials, arguments, contentions in newspapers, magazines, 
campaign literature, or the actual textbooks. Few students 
complete their course in logic with a keener insight into 
thought and with a maturer or more aggressive mental atti- 
tude. 

It was pointed out in a previous illustration that the col- 
lege student " taking philosophy " is seldom made to feel 
that the subject he studies is related to the problems that 
arise in his own life. Too frequently introductory courses 
in philosophy are historical and extensive in scope, striv- 
ing to develop mastery of facts rather than to give new 
viewpoints. The student learns names of philosophers, and 
attempts to memorize the philosophic system developed by 
each thinker. Such a course imposes a heavy burden on re- 
tentive power, for no little eff"ort is required to remember 
the distinctive philosophical systems advocated by the re- 
spective writers. To the students these philosophers repre- 
sent a group of peculiar people diff^ering one from the 



General Principles of College Teaching 61 

other in their degrees of " queerness." One system is as far 
removed as another from the life that the student ex- 
periences; no system helps him to find himself. An intro- 
ductory course in philosophy should begin with the prob- 
lems of philosophy; it should have its origin in the reflective 
and speculative problems of the student himself. As the 
course progresses, the student should feel a growing sense of 
power, an increasing ability to formulate more clearly, to 
himself at least, the questions of religion and ethics that 
arise in the life of a normal thinking person. So, too, 
courses in ethics and psychology lose the vital touch unless 
they begin in the life of the student and apply their lessons 
to his social and intellectual environment. 

It must be pointed out, however, that the social sciences 
lend themselves more readily to this intimate treatment 
than do languages, or the physical sciences, but at all points 
possible in the study of a subject, the experience of the 
student must be introduced as a means of giving the subject 
real meaninsj. In teaching composition and rhetoric illus- 
trations of the canons of good form need not be restricted 
to the past. Current magazines and newspapers are not 
devoid of effective illustrations. When the older literary 
forms are used exclusively as models of language, the 
student ends his course with the erroneous notion that con- 
temporary writing is cheap and sensational and devoid of 
artistic craftsmanship. 

Courses in physics and chemistry frequently devote them- 
selves to a development of principles rather than to the 
applications of the studies to every sphere of life. Intro- 
ductory college courses in zoology spend the year in the 
minutiae of the lowest animal forms and rarely reach any 
ianimal higher in the scale than the crayfish. We still find 
students in botany learning the various margins of leaves, 
the system of venation, the scientific classifications, but at 
the end of the course, unable to recognize ordinary leaves 
and just as blind to nature as they were before. Zoology 
and botany do not always — as they should — give a new 



62 



College Teaching 



Pedagogical 
vs. logical 
organization 



view of life, a new attitude towards living phenomena, a new 
contact with nature. 

Careful inquiry among college students will reveal an 
amazing ignorance of common chemical and physical 
phenomena after full-year courses in chemistry and physics. 
We find a student giving two semesters to work in each of 
these subjects. He spends most of his time learning the 
chemical elements, their characteristics and the modes of 
testing for them. The major portion of the time is spent 
in the laboratory, where he must discover for himself the 
elementary practices of the subject and test the validity 
of well-established truths. At the end of his second semes- 
ter he has not developed sufficient laboratory technique for 
significant work in chemistry; he is ignorant of the chem- 
ical explanation of the most common phenomena in life. 

There is much to be said for the position taken by the 
" older teachers," who may not possess the scholarship of the 
" younger investigators " but who argue for a general course 
in which laboratory work shall be reduced, technique mini- 
mized, and attention focused on giving an extensive view of 
chemical forces. The simple chemical facts in digestion, 
metabolism, industry, war, medicine, etc., would be pre- 
sented in such a way as to make life a more intelligent 
process and to give an insight into the method of science. 
In the courses that follow the introductory one, there would 
be a marked change in aim; the student would be taught the 
laboratory technique and would be given a more intensive 
study of the important aspects of chemistry. Similar 
changes in the introductory courses in physics are urged 
by these same teachers. 

Beginning at the point of contact may frequently inter- 
fere with the logical arrangement of the course of study; 
it may wrench many a topic out of its accustomed place in 
the textbook; it will demand that the applications, which 
come last in most logically arranged courses, be given 
first and that definitions and principles which come first 
be given last. This logical arrangement, it was pointed 
out, is usually the expression of the matured mind that is 



General Principles of College Teaching 63 



thoroughly conversant with every aspect of a subject; it may 
mean little, however, to the beginner — so little that he 
does not even slightly appreciate its significance. The loss 
in logical sequence entailed by beginning at the point of 
contact is often more than compensated for by the advan- 
tages which are derived from a psychological presentation. Proper 
^. „ .11 ^' • 1 • 1 organization 

A well-organized lesson possesses teacnmg merits wnicri as a factor in 



may counteract ahnost all the usual weaknesses found in 
poor teaching. Good organization determines clearness of 
comprehension, ease of retention, and ability of recall; it 
makes for economy of time and mental energy; it simpli- 
fies the processes of mental assimilation; it teaches the 
student, indirectly but effectively, to think sequentially. 
We have all suffered too keenly, as auditors and readers, 
the inconveniences of poor organization, not to realize the 
worth of proper organization of knowledge in teaching. 

Organization of knowledge has become a pedagogical 
slogan, but its increase in popularity has not been accom- 
panied by increased clearness of comprehension of its 
meaning. What, then, is meant by proper organization? 
It must ever be borne in mind that proper organization 
is a relative condition, the limits of which are determined 
by the capacities of the students and the nature of the sub- 
ject matter. What is effective organization of facts in ele- 
mentary history may be very ineffective organization for 
students of high school or college grade. Making due 
allowance for relative conditions, good organization may be 
said to consist of five essential characteristics. 

Logical sequence is the first of these. It is apparent that 
the more rational the sequence of facts, the more effective 
is the organization of knowledge. Data organized on a 
basis of cause and effect, similarity, contrast or any other 
logical relationship will help to secure the teaching advan- 
tages we have mentioned. A search for this simple prin- 
ciple in most textbooks on American or English history or 
literature reveals its complete absence. A detailed mass 
of historical information grouped into administrations or 
reigns is merely a mechanical organization in which time, 



effective 
teaching 



64 



College Teaching 



Meaning of 
organization 
of subject 
matter 



the accidental element, and not the development of social 
movements, the logic of human history, is the detei'mining 
factor. In too many courses in literature the student learns 
names of writers, biographical data, and literary character- 
istics of the masters, but fails to see the development of the 
movement of which the writer was a part. Events of his- 
tory placed in their social movements, writers in literature 
placed in the school in which they belong, give the student 
the logical ties which bind the knowledge to him. So, too, 
one often analyzes the sequence of chapters in an advanced 
algebra or a trigonometry and fails to discover the govern- 
ing rationale. It must be remembered, however, that the 
nature of the subject will often reduce the logical element, in 
its organization. Instances in language teaching may be 
cited as illustrations of teaching situations where a mechani- 
cal organization is often the only one possible because of 
the arbitrary character of the subject matter. 

Relativity of importance is the second factor of good 
organization. A cursory study of a well-organized chapter 
or merely passing attention to a well-organized lecture 
reveals at once a distinct difference in the emphasis on the 
various parts or elements of the subject. The proportional 
allotment of time or space, the number of illustrations, the 
number of questions asked on a given point, the force of 
language — these are all means of bringing out the rela- 
tive importance of constituent topics or principles. In 
retrospect, a well-organized lesson presents an appearance 
similar to a contour map; each part stands out in distinc- 
tive color according to its significance. 

It is frequently argued by teachers that students of 
college age should be required to distinguish the relativ- 
ity of importance of the parts of a lesson or the topics 
in a subject; that the instructor who points out the chang- 
ing importance of each succeeding part of a lesson is en- 
ervating the student by doing for him what he oiight to 
do for himself. This is true in part, but it must be realized 
that the instructor who through questions and directed dis- 
cussions leads students to formulate for themselves the rela- 



General Principles of College Teaching 65 

live importance of data is not only carrying out the sugges- 
tion made in the preceding paragraph but is also develop- 
ing in his students a power they too frequently lack. Those 
who have studied the notes that students take in their classes 
have seen how frequently facts are torn from their moor- 
ings; how wrong principles are derived from illustrations; 
how a catch-phrase becomes a basic principle; how simple 
truths and axioms are distorted in the frenzy of note taking. 
Through questions if possible, through emphasis on illus- 
trations and explanations, where no other means is available, 
students must be made to see that all facts of a subject are 
not of the same hue, that some are faint of tint, others in 
shadow, and still others in high colors. Without this rela- 
tivity of importance, facts are grouped; with it, they are 
intelligently organized. 

An underlying tendency can be discerned in well-organ- 
ized knowledge. Not only are facts arranged in logical 
sequence and emphasized according to importance, but 
there is in addition a central principle or an underlying 
purpose giving unifying force to them all. We can illus- 
trate the need of this third characteristic of good organi- 
zation by referring to a college course in American history 
which gives much time to the period from 1815 to 1860. 
The events of these forty-five years are not taught in 
administrations but are summed up in six national tenden- 
cies; viz., the questions of state sovereignty, slavery, terri- 
torial acquisition, tariff, industrial and transportational 
progress, and foreign policy. Each of these movements is 
treated as intensively as time permits. At the end of the 
study of the entire period, the student is left with these 
six topics but without a unifying principle; to him, these are 
six unrelated currents of events. In each of these prob- 
lems the North and the South displayed distinctive atti- 
tudes, acted from distinctive motives, expressed distinctive 
needs and preferences, but these were never brought out 
either through well-formulated questions or through expla- 
nation. As a result, the class never realize fully that those 
years, 1815-1860, marked the period of growing sectional 



QQ College Teaching 



differences, misunderstandings, and animosities. Had this 
underlying tendency been brought out clearly at various 
points in the course, the students would have carried away 
a permanent impression of what is most vital in this period 
of American development. 

Gradation of subject matter is another characteristic of 
good organization. Careful gradation is not so vital in 
subjects of social content as it is in mathematics, foreign 
languages, and exact sciences. The most important single 
factor in removing difficulties that beset a student is grada- 
tion. Teaching problems often arise because the instructor 
or the textbook presents more than one difficulty at a time. 
Teachers who lack intellectual sympathy or who are so lost 
in the advanced stages of their specialty that they can no 
longer image the successive steps of difficulty, one by one, 
that present themselves to a mind inexperienced in their 
respective fields, are frequently guilty of this pedagogical 
error. Malgradation of subject matter is the direct cause 
of serious loss of time and energy and of needless dis- 
couragement not only to students but to instructors as well. 
Ability of the student to summarize easily is a test of 
good organization. At the end of a loosely organized chap- 
ter or lesson the student experiences no little difficulty in 
setting forth the underlying principles and their supporting 
data. It does not help much to have the textbook or the 
instructor state the summary either at the end of the lesson 
in question or at the beginning of the succeeding one. The 
summary of a lesson, given by the class, is a test of the 
effectiveness of instruction. Summaries given by teachers 
or textbooks have little or no pedagogical justification. 
Only in cases where the summary introduces a new point 
of view or unifying principles, or when it sets forth basic 
principles in particularly forceful language — only then is 
the statement by teacher or textbook justifiable. 
Thorough- Teachers are advised to be thorough in their instruction. 

They in turn urge their students to strive for thoroughness 
in study. We praise or impugn the scholarship of our col- 
leagues because it possesses or lacks thoroughness. Here 



ness 



General Principles of College Teaching 67 



we have a quality of knowledge universally extolled. But 
what is meant by thoroughness? How can teachers or 
students know that they are attaining that degree of com- 
prehension known as thoroughness? We are told that thor- 
oughness is a relative condition, always changing with 
accompanying circumstances. Even an unattainable ideal 
can be defined, — why not thoroughness? We must, there- 
fore, attempt to determine the meaning of thoroughness as 
used in teaching and study. 

It may be helpful to formulate the common or lay inter- Negative in- 
pretation of thoroughness. The term " thoroughness " is ofthorougS- 
erroneously used in a quantitative sense to describe scholastic ^ess 
attainment. We are told of a colleague's thoroughness 
in history; he knows all names, dates, places, facts in the 
development of mankind; his knowledge of his specialty 
is encyclopedic; " there is no need of looking things up when 
he is around." A professor of English literature boasted 
of the thoroughness with which he teaches Hamlet: " Every 
word of value and every change in the form of versification 
are marked; every allusion is taken up, every peculiar gram- 
matical construction is brought to the attention of the class." 
Here we have illustrations of an erroneous conception of 
thoroughness which gives it an extensive meaning and re- 
gards it as the accumulation of a mass of data. 

Yet the master of chronological detail in history may have 
no historical imagination, no historical perspective, no his- 
torical judgment. He may possess the facts, but a period 
in history still remains for him a stretch of time limited by 
two dates, rather than a succession of years in which all 
mankind seems to be moving in the same direction, possessed 
of the same viewpoints, the same hopes and aspirations. 
The professor of English literature does not see that in 
teaching Hamlet he forsook his specialty, literature, for 
philology and mythology; that he turned his back on art 
and took up language structure. Thoroughness is not com- 
pleteness, because the possession of the details of a subject 
does not necessarily bring with it a true comprehension of 
it. Add all the details, and the sum total is nothing more 



68 



College Teaching 



Positive in- 
terpretation 
of thorough- 
ness 



than the group of details. Thoroughness is a degree of com- 
prehension resulting from the acquisition of new points of 
view. The teacher of history who sees underlying forces 
in the facts of the past, who understands that true inwardness 
of any movement which shows him its relation to all phases 
of life, but who nevertheless may not have ready command 
of all the specific details, is more thorough in his scholar- 
ship. He has the things that count; the facts that are for- 
gotten can easily be found. The class that studies the 
dramatic structure of Hamlet, that sees Shakespeare's power 
of character portrayal, that takes up only such grammatical 
and language points as give clearer comprehension or lead 
to greater appreciation of diction, is thorough although 
it does not possess all the facts. It is thorough because what 
is significant and dynamic in' Hamlet is made focal. The 
postgraduate student assiduously searching for data for his 
doctorate thesis is often guided by the erroneous conception 
of thoroughness; he wants facts that have never seen the 
light. The more he gets of these, the nearer he approaches 
his goal. He avoids conclusions; he is counseled by his pro- 
fessors against giving too much of his book to the expression 
of his views. Analyze the chapters of a doctorate thesis 
and note the number of pages given to facts and those to 
conclusions and interpretations. The proportion is aston- 
ishing. The student's power to find facts is clearly shown; 
his power to use facts is not revealed by his thesis. The 
richer the thesis is in detail, in references, in allusions to 
dusty tomes and original sources, the more thorough is it fre- 
quently considered by the faculty. We have failed to realize 
that this excessive zeal in gathering and collating a large num- 
ber of not commonly known facts may make the thesis more 
cumbersome, more complete, but not necessarily more thor- 
ough. However, the plea for a new standard in judging doc- 
torate theses is meeting with gratifying encouragement. 

What, then, are the teaching practices that make for 
greater thoroughness, that increase the qualitative and inten- 
sive character of knowledge? We shall discuss some of 
these in the succeeding paragraphs. 



General Principles of College Teaching 69 

The acquisition of new points of view makes for in- How can 
creased thoroughness of comprehension. The class that ness be 
understands the causes of the American Revolution from the produced? 
American point of view knows of the navigation laws, the 
quartering of soldiers in American homes, the Stamp Act, 
the Boston Massacre, — the usual provocations that strained 
patience to the breaking point. The college teacher of 
American history who spends time on the riots in New York 
in which a greater number of colonists was killed than in 
Boston, who teaches in detail the various acts forbidding the 
manufacture of hats and of iron ware, or the protests against 
English practices in the colonies made by British merchants, 
etc., is adding more facts, but he may only be intensifying 
the erroneous conclusion tha-t the students have formed in 
earlier and less complete courses. The topic, " Causes of 
the American Revolution," grows in thoroughness, not 
through the addition of these facts but through the presen- 
tation of new interpretations of the practices of the English. 
When we explain that the English believed in virtual and 
not actual representation, the students see a new mean- 
ing in " taxation without representation." When the 
students learn that the English government decided on a 
new economic and industrial policy which planned to have 
the mother country specialize in manufacture and trans- 
portation and the colonies in production of raw materials, 
the students see reason, though not necessarily justice, in 
the acts prohibiting Americans from various forms of manu- 
facture and transportational activities. These new facts 
modify in the minds of students the point of view so often 
given in elementary courses, that the War for Independence 
was caused by sheer British meanness and injustice, by 
her policy of reckless repression. 

It is not always possible to give new points of view to all 
knowledge in all subjects. There are cases in which there 
is only one point of view or where students may not be 
ready for a new interpretation because of their limited 
mastery of a new field of knowledge. Under these condi- 
tions an added point of view is a source of confusion rather 



70 College Teaching 

than an aid to clearer comprehension. Some subjects, like 
the social sciences, naturally allow for richer interpretations. 
Others, like the languages and the physical sciences, pre- 
sent only very limited opportunities; in the biological 
sciences the possibilities, though not as rich as in the social 
sciences, are numerous and productive of good results. 

Comparison is a second means of producing thoroughness 
of comprehension. Good teaching abounds in comparisons 
which are introduced at the end of every important topic 
rather than reserved for examination questions. Compari- 
sons used liberally at every logical pause in the develop- 
ment of a subject always give an added viewpoint, review 
early subject matter incidentally, stir thought, and make 
for better organization. How much more clearly are the 
causes of the War of 1812 understood after they are com- 
pared with those that brought on the Revolutionary War! 
How much more definite are the causes of the American 
Revolution when compared with those that brought on the 
French Revolution! A writer, a school, or a movement in 
English literature may be understood when studied by itself; 
but how is comprehension deepened when each is compared 
with another writer or school or movement! Comparison of 
perception and conception or appreciation and association in 
psychology, makes each activity stand out clearer in the mind 
of the student. Compare the laws of rent, wage, profit, and 
interest in economics, and not only each is better under- 
stood but the basic laws of distribution are readily derived 
by the student. Similarly, comparisons in mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, and the entire range of collegiate sub- 
jects give increased comprehension, useful though inci- 
dental reviews, and greater unification of knowledge, as 
well as added points of view. 

Correlation as a means of producing thoroughness is 
closely allied to comparison. Correlation relates kindred 
topics of different subjects, while comparison points out 
relations in the same subject. The instructor who corre- 
lates the history of education with the political and eco- 
nomic history that the student learned in another course is 



General Principles of College Teacliing 71 

unifying related experience, reducing the field of knowledge, 
introducing logical organization, and adding new interpre- 
tations to facts already acquired. Similarly, teaching must 
be enriched by correlating physics and mathematics, chem- 
istry and physics, literature and music, history of literature 
and general history, until instruction has taken advantage 
of every vital relation among subjects. With the growth 
of specialized subjects there is an unfortunate tendency: 
toward isolation until the untrained mind looks upon the 
curriculum as a series of unrelated experiences, each rival- 
ing the other in its claim to importance. 

The advantage of correlation will remain lost in college 
teaching as long as each instructor regards himself as a 
specialized investigator concerned with teaching his subject 
rather than his students. How many college teachers know 
what subjects their students have already taken, or knowing 
the names of these subjects, have a general knowledge of 
their content? The college professor of the preceding gen- 
eration was a cultured gentleman whose general scholarship 
transcended the limits of his specialty. He understood and 
knew the curriculum as a whole. Because of changes in 
every phase of our civilization, his successor has a deeper but 
a narrower knowledge. He knows little of the work of his 
students outside of his own subject. He does not relate and 
correlate the ever growing field of knowledge; he merely 
adds — by the introduction of his own mass of facts — to 
the isolation which characterizes the parts of college cur- 
ricula. This tendency must be counteracted, not by inter- 
fering with the scholastic interests of any instructor, but by 
occasional conferences of instructors of allied subjects in 
order to agree on common meeting grounds, on points of 
correlation, on useful repetitions, and on the elimination of 
needless duplications. Such pedagogical conferences are 
rare because college teachers are not alive to the need of 
reform in methods of college teaching. 

Thoroughness results from increase in the number of ap- 
plications of knowledge. The introduction of the functional 
view into teaching brings with it a realization of the vital 



72 



College Teaching 



Teaching as 
a process of 
arousing 
self-activity 



needs of increased ways of applying the experience we pre- 
sent to students. As the laws of physics, mathematics, biol- 
ogy, composition, economics, etc., are applied to a number 
of specific instances, the generalization grows in meaning 
an(l in force. Specific cases vary, and, varying, give new 
color and new meaning to the laws that are applied to ex- 
plain them. How much a law in chemistry means after 
it is applied to specific instances in industry, human 
and animal physiology, plant life, or engineering! The 
equation learned in descriptive geometry may be under- 
stood, but it never means so much as when it is applied to 
specific problems in engineering. Applications give added 
insight into knowledge and therefore make for greater 
thoroughness of comprehension. 

Locke's Blank Paper Theory, enunciated centuries ago, 
has been repeatedly and triumphantly refuted even by tyros 
in psychology, but in educational practices it continues to 
hold sway. College teaching too frequently proceeds on the 
assumption that the mind is an aching void anxiously await- 
ing the generous contributions of knowledge to be made by 
the teacher. College examinations usually test for multi- 
plicity of facts acquired, rather than for power developed. 
College teaching usually does not perceive that the mind is 
a reacting machine containing a vast amount of pent-up 
potential energy which is ready to react upon any presen- 
tation; that development takes place only as this self- 
activity expresses itself; that education is evolutionary rather 
than involutionary. Teaching is, therefore, a process of 
arousing, sustaining, and directing the self-activity of pupils. 
The more persistently and successfully this activity is 
aroused, the more systematically it is directed to intelligent 
ends, the more skillful is the teaching. Teachers do not 
impart knowledge, for that is impossible; they occasion 
knowledge. Only as the teacher succeeds through ques- 
tions, directions, diagrams, and all known devices, in arous- 
ing the self-activity of the student, is he producing the 
conditions under which knowledge is acquired by the 
pupil. 



General Principles of College Teaching 73 



The methods commonly used in college teaching are Evaluation 

of commo 
methods i 
teaching 



r_n_,,,^. of common 

as follows: methods of 



1. Lecture method, with or without quiz sections. 

2. Development method, with or without textbook. 

3. Combination of lecture and development method. 

4. Reference readings and the presentation of papers by 
students. 

5. Laboratory work by students, together with lectures 
and quiz sections. 

Teachers have long debated the relative merits of these 
methods or combinations of them. They fail to realize that 
each method is correct, depending upon the aim to be accom- 
plished and the governing circumstances. No method has 
a monopoly of pedagogical wisdom; no method, used 
exclusively, is free from inherent weakness. A teaching 
method must be judged by its ability to arouse and sustain 
self-activity and to attain the aim set for a specific lesson. 
With this standard for judging a method of teaching, we 
must stop to sum up the relative worth of common methods 
of college teaching. 

The lecture method has been the target for much criti- Lecture 
cism for many centuries. Socrates inveighed against its evaluated 
use by the sophists, and educators since have repeated the 
attack. The reasons are legion: (a) The lecture method 
tends to discourage the pupil's activity. The student feels 
no responsibility during the lecture; he listens leisurely, 
and makes notes of the instructor's contribution. The 
student's judgment is not called into play; he learns to take 
knowledge on the authority of the instructor. The sense 
of comfort and security experienced in a lecture hour is 
fatal even to aggressive and assertive minds. Sooner or 
later the students succumb to the inertia developed by the 
lecture system. 

(6) A second limitation of an exclusive lecture method is 
its inability to make permanent impressions. Many a 
student, entering the lecture hall, has completely forgotten 



74 College Teaching 

even the theme of the last lecture. Knowledge is retained 
only when it is obtained by the expression of self-activity. 
To offset this weakness notes must be taken, but these prove 
to be the bane of the lecture method. Some students, in 
their efforts to record a point just concluded, lose not only 
the thought of what they are trying to write but also the 
new thought which the instructor is now explaining; they 
drop both ideas from their notes and wait for the next step 
in the development of the lecture. This accounts for the 
many gaps in the notes kept by students. Some instruc- 
tors, dismayed by the amount of knowledge lost by students, 
resort to dictation devices. Others, realizing the pedagog- 
ical weakness of such teaching, distribute mimeographed 
outlines of carefully prepared summaries of the lectures. 
Now the student is relieved of the tedium of note taking, 
but the temptation to let his mind wander afield is intensi- 
fied. An outline, scanty of detail, but so devised as to keep 
the organization and sequence of subject matter clear in the 
minds of students, is, of course, helpful. But detailed out- 
lines distributed among the students discourage even at- 
tentive listening. 

(c) In teaching by lectures only there is no contact 
between student and teacher. The student does not recite; 
he does not reveal his type of mind, his mode of study, 
his grasp of subject matter. He is merely a passive 
recipient. To this third weakness of the lecture method 
we may add a fourth: id) it tends to emphasize quantity 
rather than method. The student is confronted with a 
great mass of facts, but he does not acquire a mode of 
thought nor does he see the method by which a given sub- 
ject is developed, (e) The lecture method, therefore, 
inculcates in students an attitude of mental subservience 
which is fatal for the development of courageous and 
vigorous thought. And finally (/) it must be urged that 
in lecture teaching the instructor is not testing the accuracy 
of the students' conceptions nor is he able to judge the 
efficacy of his own methods. 

But, on the other hand, it must be admitted that with 



General Principles of College Teaching 75 

an effective lecturer, possessed of commanding person- 
ality, the lecture gives a point of view of a subject and 
an enthusiasm for it which other devices fail to achieve. 
The lecture method makes for economy of time and en- 
ables one to present his subject to his class with a succinct- 
ness absent from many textbooks. Where much must be 
taught in a limited time, where a comprehensive view of 
an extensive field must be given, when certain types of 
responses or mental attitudes are desired, the lecture serves 
well. 

Experience teaches that an exclusive lecture svstem is ^^"^^ ^o^*^^ 

of l6ctur6 
not conducive to efficient work; that lectures to regular method 

classes ought to be punctuated by questions whenever in- 
terest lags; that the occasional and even the unan- 
nounced lecture is more effective; that supplementary de- 
vices for checking up assignments and regular collateral 
study are of vital importance. Where regular lectures are 
followed by detailed analyses in quiz sections the best re- 
sults are obtained when the lecturer himself is the questioner. 
Where quiz sections are turned over to assistants, wise 
procedure requires that quiz leaders attend the lectures 
and decide, in conference with the lecturer, the specific 
aims which must be achieved in the quiz work and the 
assigned readings which must be given to students in 
preparation for each quiz hour. Unless this is done, the 
student is frequently confused by the divergent points of 
view presented by lecturer, quiz master, and textbook. 
The development method has much to commend it. 
It stimulates activity by its repeated questions. Few or 
no notes are taken. There is constant contact with the 
student. At every point the mental content of the pupils 
is revealed. The teacher sees the result of his teaching 
by the intelligence of successive responses. The pupil is 
being trained in systematic thought and in concentration. 
But it must be remembered that the development method 
is often costly in time because answers may be wrong or 
irrelevant. It may encourage wandering; a student's 
reply reveals ignorance of a basic principle, and the aim 



76 



College Teaching 



Place of 
reference 
reading in 
college 
teaching 



Evaluation 
of develop- 
ment — So- 
cratic or 
heuristic 
method 



of the lesson is often forgotten in the eagerness to patch 
up this misconception. Then, too, in subject matter that 
is arbitrary, as in descriptive and narrative history, no 
development is possible. In such cases the questions are 
designed to test the student's knowledge of the text, and 
the lesson becomes a quiz rather than a development. 

It is plain, therefore, that a judicious combination of 
the lecture and development methods will give better re- 
sults than the exclusive use of either one. The analysis 
of the pedagogical advantages of each leads to the con- 
clusion that the development method should predominate 
and that the lecture method should be used sparingly and 
always with some of the checking devices described. 

A common method employed in advanced courses in 
college subjects emphasizes reference study and research. 
The entire course is reduced to a series of problems, each 
of which deals with a vital aspect of the subject. Each 
student is made responsible for a topic. The initial hours 
are devoted to an examination of the common sources of 
information in this specific subject, the modes of using 
these, the standards to be attained in writing a paper on 
one of the topics, and similar matters. The remainder of 
the term is given over to seminar work: each student reads 
his paper and holds himself in readiness to answer all 
questions his classmates may ask on his topic. The aims 
of such a course are obviously to develop a knowledge of 
sources and an ability to use intelligently the unorganized 
data found by the student. The results of these pseudo- 
seminar courses are far from what was anticipated. A 
thorough investigation of such a course will soon con- 
vince the teacher that the seminar method, whatever its 
merits in university training, must be refined and diluted 
before it is applied to college teaching. Let us see why. 

Successful reference reading requires a knowledge of the 
field studied, maturity of mind, discriminating judgment in 
the selection of material, and ability in organization. The 
university student is not only maturer and more serious 
but has a basis of broader knowledge than most under- 



General Principles of College Teaching 77 

graduates. Without this equipment of mental powers and 
knowledge, the student cannot judge the merits .of contend- 
ing views nor harmonize seeming discrepancies. A 
student who has no ample foundation of economics cannot 
study the subject by reference reading on the problems 
of economics. To learn the meaning of value he would 
read the psychological explanations of the Austrian schools 
and the materialistic conceptions of the classical writers. 
He would then find himself in a state of confusion, owing 
to what seemed to him to be a superfluity , of explanations 
of value. When one understands one point of view, an 
added viewpoint is a source of greater clarity and a means 
of deeper understanding. But when one is entirely 
ignorant of fundamental concepts, two points of view 
presented simultaneously become two sources of confusion. 
In the university only the student of tried worth is per- 
mitted to take a seminar course. In the upper classes in 
college, mediocre students are often welcomed into a 
seminar course in order to help float an unpromising elec- 
tive. 

The college seminar is usually unsuccessful because Limitations 
few students have ability to hold the attention of their method in 
classmates for a period of thirty minutes or more. >^i^der- 
Language limitations, lack of a knowledge of subject teaching 
matter, inability to illustrate eff^ectively, and the skeptical 
attitude of fellow students all militate against successful 
teaching by a member of the class. Students presenting 
papers often select unimportant details or give too many 
details. The rest of the class listen languidly, take oc- 
casional notes, and ask a few perfunctory questions to help 
bring the session to a close. A successful hour is rare. 
The student who prepared the topic of the day undoubt- 
edly is benefited, but those who listen acquire little knowl- 
edge and less power. The course ends without a compre- 
hensive view of the entire subject, without that knowledge 
which comes from the teacher's leadership and instruction. 
This type of reference reading and research has value when 
used as an occasional ten or fifteen minute exercise to 



78 College Teaching 

supplement certain aspects of class work. But as a steady 

diet in a college course, the seminar usually leaves much 

to be desired. 

The laboratory method is growing in favor today in 

college teaching. It is employed in the social sciences, in 

sociology, in economics, in psychology, in education, as 

well as in the physical and the biological sciences. Where 

it is followed the aim is clearly twofold; viz., to teach 

the method by which the specific subject is growing and 

to develop in the students mental power and a scientific 

attitude towards knowledge. 

Value of Lgl^ ug illustrate these two aims of the laboratorv method, 

laboratory k ^ ^ - ^ • i • i • i 

method A laboratory course in chemistry or biology or sociology 

may be designed to teach the student the use of apparatus 
and equipment necessary for work in a respective field; 
the method of attacking a problem; a standard for dis- 
tinguishing significant from immaterial data; methods of 
gathering facts; the modes of keeping scientific records,- — 
in a word, the essence of the experience of successive gen- 
erations of investigators and contributors. But no success- 
ful laboratory results can be obtained without a proper 
mental attitude. The student must learn how to prevent 
his mental prepossessions or his desires from coloring his 
observations; to allow for controls and variables; to give 
most exacting care to every detail that may influence his 
result; to regard every conclusion as a tentative hypothesis 
subject to verification or modification in the light of 
further test. Unless the student acquires a knowledge of 
the method of science and has achieved these necessary 
modes of thought, his laboratory course has failed to make 
its most significant contribution. 

In courses where the aim is to teach socially necessary 
information or to give a comprehensive view of the scope 
of a specific subject, it is obvious that the laboratory 
method will lead far afield. It is for this reason that 
introductory courses given in recitations, with demonstra- 
tions by instructors, and occasional lecture and laboratory 
hours, are more liberalizing in their influence upon the 



General Principles of College Teaching 79 



beginners than courses that are primarily laboratory in 
character. 

Most laboratory courses would enhance their usefulness Cautions in 
by observing a few primary pedagogical maxims. The Jhe iTborL 
first of these counsels that we establish most clearly the to^y method 
distinctive aim of the course. The instructor must be sure 
that he has no quantitative aim to attain but is occupied 
rather with the problems of teaching the method of his 
specialty. Second, an earnest effort must be made to 
acquaint the students with the general aim of the entire 
course as well as with the specific aim of each laboratory 
exercise. The students must be made to realize that they are 
not discovering new principles but that by rediscovering 
old knowledge or testing the validity of well-established 
truths they are developing not only the technique of in- 
vestigational work, but also a set of useful mental habits. 
Much in laboratory work seems needless to the student 
who does not perceive the goal which every task strives to 
attain. 

A third requisite for successful laboratory work re- 
quires so careful a gradation that every type of problem 
peculiar to a subject is made to arise in the succession 
of exercises. It is wise at times to set a trap for 
students so that they may learn through the consequences 
of error. For this reason students may be permitted to 
leap to a conclusion, to generalize from insufficient data, 
to neglect controls, to overlook disturbing factors, etc. 
An improperly planned and poorly graded laboratory 
course repeats exercises that involve the same problems 
and omits situations that give training in attacking and 
solving new problems. 

Effective laboratory courses afford opportunity to 
students to repeat those exercises in which they failed 
badly. If each exercise in the course is designed to make 
a specific contribution to the development of the student, 
it is obvious that merely marking the student zero for a 
badly executed experiment is not meeting the situation. 
He must in addition be given the opportunity to repeat the 



80 



College Teaching 



The college 
teacher not 
the univer- 
sity pro- 
fessor 



experiment in order to derive the necessary variety of 
experiences from his laboratory training. And, finally, 
the character of the test that concludes a laboratory course 
must be considered. The test must be governed by the 
same underlying aims that determine the entire course. 
It must seek to reveal, not the mastery of facts, but growth 
in power. It must measure what the student can do rather 
than what he knows. A properly organized test serves to 
reinforce in the minds of students the aims of the entire 
course. 

An analysis of effective teaching is necessarily incom- 
plete that does not give due consideration to the only 
human factor in the teaching process — the teacher. We 
have too long repeated the old adages: "he who knows can 
teach"; "a teacher is born, not made"; "experience is 
the teacher of teachers." These dicta are all tried and 
true, but they have the failings common to platitudes. It 
often happens that those who know but lack in imagina- 
tion and sympathy are by that very knowing rendered unfit 
to teach. " Knowing " so well, they cannot see the diffi- 
culties that beset the learner's path, and they have little 
patience with the student's slow and measured steps in the 
very beginnings of their specialty. It is true that some are 
born teachers, but our educational institutions could not 
be maintained if classes were turned over only to those to 
whom nature had given lavishly of pedagogical power. 
Experience teaches even teachers, but the price paid must 
be computed in terms of the welfare of the student. 
Teaching is one of the arts in which the artist works only 
with living material; yet college authorities still make 
no demand of professional training and apprenticeship as 
prerequisites for admission to the fraternity of teaching 
artists. 

Ineffective college teaching will not improve until pro- 
fessional teaching standards are set up by respected in- 
stitutions. The college teacher must be possessed of ample 
scholarship of a general nature. He must have expertness 
in his specialty, to give him a knowledge of his field, 



General Principles of College Teaching 81 

its problems and its methods. He must be a constant 
student, so that his scholarship in his specialty will win 
recognition and respect. But part of his preparation must 
be given over to professional training for teaching. With- 
out this, the prospective teacher may not know until it is 
too late that his deficiencies of personality unfit him for 
teaching. With it, he shortens his term of novitiate and 
acquires his experience under expert guidance. The plan 
of college-teacher training, given by Dr. Mezes in Chapter 
II, so complete in scope, so thoroughly sound and progres- 
sive in character, is here suggested as a type of professional 
preparation now sorely needed. 

The usual test of teacher and student is still the tradi- Testing the 

ITQSIllfiS of 

tional examination, with its many questions and sub-ques- instruction 
tions. We still measure the results of instruction by 
fathoming the fund of information our students carry 
away. But these traditional examinations test for what is 
temporary and accidental. Facts known today are for- 
gotten tomorrow. The professor himself often comes to 
class armed with notes, but he persists in setting up, as 
a test of the growth of his students, their retentivity of the 
facts he gave from these very notes. In the final analysis, 
these examinations are not tests. The writer does not urge 
the abolition of examinations, but argues rather for a re- 
organized examination that embodies new standards. A 
real examination must test for what is permanent and vital; 
it must measure the degree to which students approximate 
the aims that were set up to govern the entire course; it 
must gauge the mental habits, the growth in power, rather 
than facts. Part of an examination in mathematics, should 
test students' ability to attack new problems, to plan a line 
of work, to think mathematically, to avoid typical fallacies 
of thought. For this part of the test, books may be opened 
and references consulted. In literature we may question 
on text not discussed in class to ascertain the students' 
power of appreciation or of literary criticism. So, too, in 
examinations in social sciences, physical sciences, foreign 
languages, and biological sciences, the examination must 



82 College Teaching 

consist, in great measure, of questions which test the 
acquisition of the habits of thought, of work, of laboratory 
procedure — in a word, the permanent contribution of any 
study. This part of an examination should be differ- 
entiated from the more mechanical and memory questions 
which seek to reveal the student's mastery of those facts 
of a subject which may be regarded as socially necessary. 
Reduce the socially necessary data of any subject to an 
absolute minimum and frame questions on it demand- 
ing no such slovenly standard — sixty per cent — as 
now prevails in college examinations. If the facts called 
for on an examination are really the most vital in the sub- 
ject, the passing grade should be very high. If the ques- 
tions seek to elicit insignificant or minor information, any 
passing mark is too high. It is obvious, therefore, that a 
student should receive two marks in most subjects, — one 
that rates power and another that rates mere acquisition 
of facts. The passing grade in the one would necessarily 
be lower than in the other. An examination is justified 
only when it is so devised that it reveals not only the 
students' stock of socially useful knowledge but also their 
growth in mental power. 

Paul Klapper 

College of the City of New York 



PART TWO 
The Sciences 

CHAPTER 

IV The Teaching of Biology 

T. W. Galloway 

V The Teaching of Chemistry 

Louis Kahlenberg 

VI The Teaching of Physics 

Harvey B. Lemon 

VII The Teaching of Geology 

T. C. Chamherlin 

VIII The Teaching of Mathematics 

G. A. Miller 

IX Physical Education in the College 

Thomas A. Storey 



IV 



THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY 



Biology and Education 

THE life sciences, broadly conceived, are basal to all de- Biology the 
partments of knowledge; and the study of bi6logy \^^&iT 
illumines every field of human interest. To the believer knowing 
in evolution the human body, brain, senses, intellect, sen- 
sations, impulses, habits, ideas, knowledges, ideals, 
standards, attractions, sympathies, combinations, organiza- 
tions, institutions, and all other powers and possessions of 
every kind and degree are merely crowning phenomena of 
life itself. The languages, history, science, economic sys- 
tems, philosophies, and literatures of mankind are only 
special manifestations and expressions of life and a part, 
therefore, of the studies by which we as living beings are 
trying to appraise and appreciate the meaning of life and 
of the universe of which life is the most significant product. 
Life is not merely the most notable product of our universe ; 
it is the most persuasive key for solving the riddle of the 
universe, and is the only universe product which aspires to 
interpret the processes by which it has reached its own pres- 
ent level. 

All knowledge, then, is biological in the very vital sense 
that the living organism is the only knowing thing. The 
knowing process is a life process. Even when knowledge 
pertains to non-living objects, therefore, it is one-half bio- 
logical; our most worth-while knowledge — that of our- 
selves and other organisms — is wholly so. Because all 
our knowledge is colored by the life process, of which 
the knowing process is derivative, the study of life under- 
lies every science and its applications, every art and its 
practice, every philosophy and its interpretations. Biol- 
ogy must be taught in sympathy with the whole joint 
enterprise of living and of learning. 

85 



86 



College Teaching 



Adaptation 
without los- 
ing adapta- 
bility the 
goal of life 
and of 
education 



The most outstanding phenomenon of life is the adapta- 
tion of living things to the real and significant conditions of 
their existence. Furthermore, as these conditions are noi 
static, particularly in the case of humans, organisms must 
not merely be adapted, but must continue thereafter to be 
adaptable. Now learning is only a special case under 
living, and education a special case under life. Its pur- 
poses are the purposes of life. It is an artificial and rapid 
recapitulation for the individual, in method and results, 
of past life itself. The purpose of education is " adap- 
tation, — with the retention of adaptability." It is to bring 
the individual into attunement, through his own responses 
and growth, with all the real factors, external and internal, 
in his life, — material, intellectual, emotional, social, and 
spiritual, — and at the same time leave him plastic. 

Adaptation comes through the habit-forming experiences 
of stimulus and response. The very process of adaptation, 
therefore, tends toward fixity and to destroy adaptability. 
It is thus the task of education, as it is of life, to replace the 
native, inexperienced and physiological plasticity of youth 
with some product of experience which shall be able to 
revise habits in the interest of new situations. The adapt- 
ability of the experienced person must be psychical and 
acquired. It must be in the realm of appreciation, atti- 
tude, choice, self-direction — a realm superior to habit. 

In this human task of securing adaptation and retaining 
adaptiveness the life sciences have high rank. In addi- 
tion to furnishing the very conception itself that we have 
been trying to phrase, they give illustrations of all the his- 
toric occasions, kinds, and modes of adaptation; in lacking 
the exactness of the mathematical and physical sciences 
they furnish precisely the degree of uncertainty and open- 
ness of opportunity and of mental state which the act of 
living itself demands. In other words the science of life 
is, if properly presented, the most normal possible intro- 
duction to the very practical art of living. Because of the 
parallel meaning of education and life in securing progres- 
sive adaptation to the essential influential forces of the uni- 



The Teaching of Biology 87 

verse, an appreciative study of biology introduces directly 
to the purposes and methods of human education. 

Chief Aims of Biology as a College Subject 

While students differ in the details of their purposes in Why study 
life, all must learn to make the broad adjustments to the coiiegJ?^" 
physical conditions of life; to the problems of food and 
nutrition; to other organisms, helpful and hurtful; to the 
internal impulses, tendencies, and appetites; to the various 
necessary human contacts and relations; to the great body 
of knowledge important to life, which human beings have 
got together; to the prevailing philosophical interpreta- 
tions of the universe and of life; and to the pragmatic or- 
ganizations, conventions, and controls which human society 
has instituted. In addition to these, some students of biol- 
ogy are going into various careers, each demanding special 
adjustments which biology may aid notably. Such are 
medicine and its related specialties, professional agricul- 
tural courses,- and biological research of all kinds. 

An extended examination of college catalogs shows some 
consciousness of these facts on the part of teachers of 
biology. The following needs are formally recognized in 
the prospectuses: (1) The disciplinary and cultural needs 
of the general student; (2) the needs of those preparing 
for medicine or 'other professional courses; and (3) the 
needs of the people proposing to specialize in botany and 
zoology. These aims are usually mentioned in the order 
given here; but an examination of the character of the 
courses often reveals the fact that the actual organization of 
the department is determined by an exact reversal of this 
order, — that most of the attention is given, even in the 
beginning courses, to the task of preparing students to take 
advanced work in the subject. The theory of the depart- 
ments is usually better than their practice. 

In what follows these are the underlying assumptions, 
— which seem without need of argument: (1) The gen- 
eral human needs should have the first place in organizing 



88 



College Teaching 



the courses in biology; (2) the introductory courses should 
not be constructed primarily as the first round in the ladder 
of biological or professional specialization, but for the gen- 
eral purposes of human life; (3) the preparation needed 
by teachers of biology for secondary schools is more nearly 
like that needful for the general student than that suited 
to the specialist in the subject; and (4) the later courses 
may more and more be concerned with the special ends 
of professional and vocational preparation. 



(1) study 
of biology 
furnishes 
knowledge 
of adaptive 
value 



General Aims of Biology in Education 

What are the general adaptive contributions of biology to 
human nature? What are the results in the individual 
which biology should aim to bring to every student? 
There are four classes of personal possessions, important 
in human adaptation, to which biology ministers in a con- 
spicuous way: information and knowledge; ability and 
skills; habits; and attitudes, appreciations, and ideals. 
These four universal aims of education are doubtless closely 
related and actually inseparable, but it is worth while to 
consider them apart for the sake of clearness. 

A. TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE USEFUL IN THE 

ADAPTATION OF HUMAN BEINGS TO THE MOST 

IMPORTANT CONDITIONS OF THEIR LIFE 

(1) Some knowledge of the processes by which indi- 
vidual plants and animals grow and differentiate, through 
nutrition and activity; of the process of development com- 
mon to all organisms; and the bearing of these facts on 
human life, health, and conduct. 

(2) An outline knowledge of reproduction in plants and 
animals; the origin, nature, meaning, and results of sex; 
the contribution of sex to human life, to social organization 
and ideals, and its importance in determining behavior and 
controls. 

(3) A good knowledge of the external forces most im- 
portant in influencing life; of the nature of the influence; 



The Teaching of Biology 89 



of the various ways in which organisms respond and become 
adjusted individually and racially to these conditions. A 
sense of the necessity of adaptation; of the working of the 
laws of cause and effect among living things, as every- 
where else; of the fact that nature's laws cannot be safely 
ignored by man any more than by the lower organisms; 
of the relation between animal behavior and human be- 
havior. 

(4) Equally a true conception of the known facts about 
the internal tendencies in organisms including man, which 
we call hereditary. The principles underlying plant, ani- 
mal, and human breeding. Any progress in behavior, in 
legislation, or in public opinion in the field of eugenics, 
negative or positive, must come from the spread of such 
knowledge. 

(5) A knowledge of the numerous ways in which plants 
and animals contribute to or interfere with human welfare. 
This includes use for food, clothing, and labor saving; 
their destruction of other plants or animals useful or hurt- 
ful to us; their work in producing, spreading, or aiding 
in the cure of disease; their aesthetic service and inspiration; 
the aid they give us in learning of our own nature 
through the experiments we conduct upon them; and many 
miscellaneous services. 

(6) A conception of the evolutionary series of plants and 
animals, and of man's place in the series; a reassurance that 
man's high place as an intellectual and emotional being 
is in no way put in peril by his being a part of the 
series. Some clear knowledge of the general manner of 
the development of the plant and animal kingdoms to their 
present complexity should be gained. The student should 
have some acquaintance with the great generalizations that 
have meant so much to the science and to all human think- 
ing, should understand how they were reached and the main 
classes of facts on which they are based. 

(7) The general student should be required to have such 
knowledge of structure and classification as is needed to 
give foundation and body to the evolutionary conceptions 



90 



College Teaching 



(2) Biologi- 
cal study 
gives desir- 
a1}le skills 



of plants and animals, and to the various processes and 
powers mentioned above — and only so much. 

(8) Some knowledge of the development of the science 
itself; of its relation to the other sciences; of the men who 
have most contributed to it, and their contributions; of the 
manner of making these discoveries, and of the bearing 
of the more important of these discoveries upon human 
learning, progress, and well-being. 

(9) Something of the parallelism between animal psy- 
chology, behavior, habits, instincts, and learning, and those 
of man, — in both the individual and the social realm. 

(10) An elementary understanding of plant and animal 
and human distribution over the earth, and of the factors 
that have brought it about. 

B. FORMS OF SKILL WHICH WORK IN BIOLOGY SHOULD 
BRING TO EVERY STUDENT 

Skill or ability may be developed in respect to the 
following activities: seeking and securing information, 
recording it, interpreting its significance, reaching general 
conclusions about it, modifying one's conduct under the 
guidance of these conclusions, and, finally, of appraising 
the soundness of this conduct in the light of the results of it. 
All of these are of basic importance in the human task of 
making conscious adjustments in actual life; and the ability 
to get facts and to use them is more valuable than to possess 
the knowledge of facts. Other sciences develop some of 
these forms of skill better than biology does; nevertheless, 
we shall find that biology furnishes a remarkably balanced 
opportunity to develop skills of the various kinds. It pre- 
sents a great range and variety of opportunity to develop 
accuracy and skill in raising questions; in observation and 
the use of precise descriptive terms in recording results of 
observation; in experimentation; in comparison and classi- 
fication. It is peculiarly rich in opportunities to gain skill 
in discriminating between important and unimportant data, 
— one of the most vital of all the steps in the process of 
sound reasoning. In practice, a datum may at first sight 



The Teaching of Biology 91 

seem trivial, when in reality it is very significant. Skill 
in estimating values comes only with experience in esti- 
mating values, and in applying these estimates in practice, 
and in observing and correcting the results of practice. 

Finally, skill in adjusting behavior to knowledge is one 
of the most necessary abilities and most difficult to attain. 
The study of animal behavior experimentally is at the 
foundation of much that we know of human psychology 
and the grounds of human behavior. Even in an elemen- 
tary class it is quite possible so to study animal responses 
and the results of response as to give guidance and facility 
to the individual in interpreting the efficiency of his own 
responses, and in adding to his own controls. As has been 
said, practice of some kind is necessary to determine 
whether our estimate of values is good. Even vicarious 
experience has educative value. 

C. HABITS WHICH MAY BE STRENGTHENED BY THE 
WORK IN BIOLOGY 

Habits are of course the normal outcome of repeated <^^ ^l^^Y 
action. Indeed, skills are in a sense habits from another adaptive 
point of view. Skill, however, looks rather toward the ^*^^*^ 
output; habit, toward the mode of functioning by the per- 
son by whom the result is attained. We may then de- 
velop habits in respect to all the processes and activities 
mentioned above under the term " skills." The tedcher 
of biology should have definitely in purpose the securing 
for the student of habits of inquiry, of diligence, of con- 
centration, of accuracy of observation, of seeking and 
weighing evidence, of detecting the essentials in a mass of 
facts, of refusing to rest satisfied until a conclusion, the 
most tenable in the light of all known data, is reached, 
and of reexamining conclusions whenever new evidence is 
offered. 

Of course it is impossible to use biology to get habits 
of right reasoning in students unless we really allow them to 
reason. If we insist that their work is merely to observe, 
record, and hold in memory, — as so many of us do in 



92 College Teaching 

laboratory work, — they may form habits of doing these 
things, but not necessarily any more than this. Indeed, 
they may definitely form the habit of doing only these 
things, failing to use the results in forming for themselves 
any of the larger conclusions about organisms. Seeing and 
knowing — without the ability and habit of thinking — is 
not an uncommon or surprising result of our conventional 
laboratory work. There is only one way to get the habit 
of right " following through " in reasoning; this is, always 
to do the thing. When data are observed or are furnished 
it is a pedagogical sin on the part of the teacher to allow 
the student to stop at that point; and equally so to deduce 
the conclusion for the student, or to allow the writer of the 
textbook to do so, or at any time to induce the student to 
accept from another a conclusion which he himself might 
reach from the data. We have depended too much on our 
science as a mere observational science, — when as a matter 
of fact its chief glory is really its opportunity and its 
incentives to coherent thinking and careful testing of con- 
clusions. 

It is inexact enough, if we are entirely honest, to force 
us to hold our conclusions with an open mind ready to 
admit new evidence. It is entirely the fault of the teacher 
if the pupil gets a dogmatic, too-sure habit of mind as the 
result of his biological studies. And yet, as has been said, 
it is exact enough to enable us to reach just the same sort 
of approximations to truth which are possible in our own 
lives. The study of biology presents a superb opportunity 
to prepare for living by forming the habits of mind and 
of life that facilitate right choices in the presence of highly 
debatable situations. In this it much surpasses the more 
" exact " sciences. We may conclude, then, by positing the 
belief that the most important mental habit which human 
beings can form is that of using and applying consciously 
the scientific method as outlined above, not merely to biol- 
ogy alone, but to all the issues of personal life as well. 



The Teaching of Biology 



93 



D. APPRECIATIONS, ATTITUDES, AND IDEALS AS AIDED BY 

BIOLOGY 

This group of objectives is a bit less tangible, as some (4) Atti- 

think, than those that have been mentioned; but in my J"^®^ °^ 
' , , ' •' life per- 

own opinion they are as important and as educable for the fected by 
good of the youth by means of biology as are knowledge, \^^ Sciences 
skill, and habit. In a sense these states of mind arise as 
by-products of the getting of information, skills, and habits; 
in turn they heighten their value. We have spoken above 
of the need of skill and habit in making use of the various 
steps in the scientific method in reaching conclusions in life. 
These are essential, but skill and habit alone are not enough 
to meet the necessities in actual life. 

In the first place the habit of using the scientific method 
in the scientific laboratory does not in itself give assurance 
that the person will apply this method in getting at the 
truth in problems in his own personal life; and yet this 
is the essential object of all this scientific training. In 
order to get the individual to carry over this method, — 
especially where feelings and prejudices are involved, — 
we must inculcate in him the scientific ideal and the scien- 
tific attitude until they become general in their influence. 
To do this he ought to be induced as a regular part of 
his early courses in biology to practice the scientific method 
upon certain practical daily decisions exactly with the same 
rigor that is used in the biological laboratory. The custom 
of using this method in animal study should be trans- 
formed into an attitude of dependence upon it as the only 
sound method of solving one's life choices. Only by carry- 
ing the method consciously into our life's problems, as a part 
of the exercise in the course in biology, can we break up the 
disposition to regard the method as good merely in the bio- 
logical laboratory. We must generate, by practice and pre- 
cept, the ideal of making universal our dependence upon 
our best instrument of determining truth. A personal habit 
in the laboratory must become a general ideal for life, 
if we hope to substitute the scientific method for prejudice 



94 



College Teaching 



(5) Biology 
a valuable 
tool for 
certain 
technical 
pursuits 



in human living. There is no department of learning so 
well capable of doing this thing as biology. 

In the second place, the scientific method standing alone, 
because of its very excellence as a method, is liable to pro- 
duce a kind of over-sure dogmatism about conclusions, un- 
less it be accompanied by the scientific attitude or spirit of 
open-mindedness. The scientific spirit does not necessarily 
flow from the scientific method at all, unless the teacher is 
careful in his use of it in teaching. We make a mistake if, 
in our just enthusiasm to impress the scientific method upon 
the student, we fail to teach that it can give, at best, only an 
approximation to truth. The scientific attitude which holds 
even our best-supported conclusions subject to revision by 
new evidence is the normal corrective of the possible dog- 
matism that comes from over-confidence in the scientific 
method as our best means of discovering truth. 

The student at the end of the first year of biology ought 
to have more appreciation and enjoyment of plants and 
animals and their life than at the beginning, — and in- 
creased appreciation of his own relation to other animals; 
some attitude of dependence upon the scientific method of 
procedure not merely in biology but in his own life; a 
desire, however modest, for investigating things for himself; 
and an ideal of open-minded, enthusiastic willingness to 
subject his own conclusions to renewed testing at all times. 
All these gains should be reinforced by later courses. 

Special Aims of Biology in Education 

So far as I can see, the preparation of students for 
medicine, for biological research, or for any advanced ap- 
plication of biology calls only for the following, — in addi- 
tion to the further intensification of the emphasis suggested 
above: 

(a) An increased recognition of the subject matter in 
organizing the course. In the early courses the subject 
ought to be subordinated to the personal elements. If one 
is to relate himself to the science in a professional way, the 
logic of the science comes to be the dominant objective. 



The Teaching of Biology 



95 



(6) Growing out of the above there comes to be a change 
of emphasis on the scientific method. The method itself 
is identical, but the attitude toward it is different. In the 
early courses it was guided by the teaching purpose. We 
insist upon the method in order that the student may ap- 
preciate how the subject has grown, may realize how all 
truth must be reached, and may come habitually to apply 
the method to his life problems. In the later courses it 
becomes the method of research into the unknown. The 
student comes more and more to use it as a tool, in whose 
use he himself is subordinated to his devotion to a field of 
investigation. 

(c) A greater emphasis upon such special forms of 
biological knowledge as will be necessary as tools in the 
succeeding steps, and the selection of sul3Ject matter with 
this specifically in view. This is chiefly a matter of infor- 
mation, making the next steps intellectually possible. 

id) More specific forms of skill, adapted to the work 
contemplated. Technic becomes an object in such courses. 
Morphology, histology, technic, exact experimentation, 
repetition, drill, extended comparative studies, classifi- 
tion, and the like become more essential than in the ele- 
mentary courses. Thoroughness and mastery are desiderata 
for the sake both of subject matter and character; and in 
very much greater degree than in the general course. 



Organization of the Course in Biology 

The writer does not feel that standardized programs in 
biology in colleges are either possible or desirable. What 
is set down here under this heading is merely intended 
as carrying out the principles outlined above, and not as 
the only way to provide a suitable program. The writer 
assumes that the undergraduates are handled by men of 
catholic interests; and that the undergraduate courses are 
not distributed and manipulated primarily as feeders for 
specialized departments of research in a graduate school. 
This latter attitude is, in my opinion, fatal to creditable 



Biology- 
courses not 
to be stand- 
ardized, 
rigidly 



96 



College Teaching 



But they 
should 
follow 
a general 
principle: 



(1) The first 
group of 
courses 
should intro- 
duce to life 
rather than 
to later bio- 
logical 
courses 



undergraduate instruction for the general student or for the 
future high school teachers of the subject. 

There are three groups or cycles of courses which may 
properly be developed by the college or by the undergrad- 
uate department of the university. 

First Group 

This group contains introductory courses for all students, 
but organized particularly with the idea of bringing the 
rich material of biology to the service of young people 
with the aim of making them effective in life, and not as a 
first course for making them botanists or zoologists. 

Course — Biology 1. General Biology 

This course should introduce the student to the college 
method of work in the life sciences; should give him the 
general knowledge and points of view outlined above as 
the chief aims of Biology; should synthesize what the student 
already knows about plants and animals under the general 
conception of life. Ideally the botanical and zoological 
portions should be fused and be given by one teacher, rather 
than presented as one semester of botany and one of zool- 
ogy. This, however, is frequently impracticable. In any 
event the total result should really be biology, and not a 
patchwork of botany and zoology. Hence there should be 
a free crossing of the barriers in use of materials at all 
times. 

A year of biology is recommended because each pupil 
ought to have some work in both fields, and we cannot ex- 
pect him to take a year in each. 

Course — Biology 2. History of Biology 

This course, dealing with the relation of the development 
of biology to human interests and problems, may be given 
separately, or as a part of Course I, — which should other- 
wise be prerequisite to it. This may be one of the most 
humanizing of all the possible courses in biology. 



The Teaching of Biology 



97 



sional uses 



Second Group 

This group furnishes a series of courses providing a ^^^^g^'^^'jj 
thorough introduction to the principles and methods of be technical 
botany and zoology. They provide discipline, drill, com- ductory^'^to 
parison, mastery of technic as well as increased appreciation profes- 
of biology and of the scientific method. They should pre- 
pare for advanced work in biology, and for technical appli- 
cations of it to medicine, agriculture, stock breeding, for- 
estry, etc. 

Course — Zoology 1 : Gen- 
eral and Comparative Zo- 
ology. 

Course — Zoology 2 : Ani- 
mal, including Human, 
Physiology. 

Course — Zoology 3: Mi- 
crotechnic, Histology, 

Histogenesis, Embryogeny. 

Course — Zoology 4: Ani- 
mal Ecology. 

This outline for botany and zoology follows in the main 
the most common arrangement found in the schools of the 
country. In the personal judgment of the writer all under- 
graduate courses should combine aspects of morphology, 
physiology, ecology, etc., rather than be confined strictly 
to one particular phase; even histology and embryology 
can be better taught when their physiological aspects are 
emphasized. There is no fundamental reason, however, 
why there may not be great latitude of treatment in this 
group. An alluring feature of biological teaching is that a 
teacher who has a vital objective can begin anywhere in 
our wonderful subject and get logically to any point he 
wishes. These courses may be further subdivided, where 
facilities allow. 

Third Group 

This group contains certain of the more elementary ap- 
plications of biology to human welfare. While having 



Course — Botany 1 : Gen- 
eral and Comparative Bot- 
any, and the Evolution of 
Plants. 

Course — Botany 2: Physi- 
ology and Ecology of 
Plants. 

Course — Botany 3 : Plant 
Cytology, Histology, and 
Embryology. 



98 



College Teaching 



(3) A third 
group of 
special, but 
cultural, 
courses 



The first 
course ought 
to he given 
in such a 
way that 
It might 
fittingly be 
required of 
all freshmen 



practical value in somewhat specialized vocations, the 
courses in this group are not proposed as professional or 
technical. They are definitely cultural. Every college 
might well give one or more of them, in accordance with 
local conditions. They ought to be eligible without the 
courses of the second group. The order is not significant. 

Biology 3: Economic Entomology; 

Biology 4: Bird Course; 

Biology 5: Tree Course; 

Biology 6: Bacteriology and Fermentation; 

Biology 7: Biology of Sex; Heredity and Eugenics; 

Biology 8: Biology and Education; 

Biology 9: Evolution and Theoretical Problems. 

Place of Biology in the College 
Curriculum 

The introductory course (Biology 1) can be given in 
such a way that it ought to be required of all students 
during the freshman or sophomore year, preferably the 
freshman. In addition to the life value suggested above, 
and its introductory value in later biology courses, such 
a course would aid the student in psychology, sociology, 
geology, ethics, philosophy, education, domestic economy, 
and physical culture. Effort should be made to correlate 
the biological work with these departments of instruction. 
The course as now given in most of our colleges and 
universities does not possess enough merit to become a 
required study. Perhaps all we have a right at present to 
ask is that biology shall be one of a group of sciences 
from which all students must elect at least one. It is pre- 
posterous, in an age of science, that any college should not 
require at least a year of science. 

Biology 1 should be prerequisite for botany 1 and zoology 
1, and for the special biology courses in group three. 

Botany 1 and zoology 1 should be made prerequisite for 
the higher courses in their respective fields; but aside from 
this almost any sequence would be allowable. 



The Teaching of Biology 99 

A major in biology should provide at least for biology 1 
and 2, botany 1, zoology 1, botany 2 and 3, or zoology, 2 
and 3. Chemistry is desirable as a preparation for the 
second group of courses. 

Methods of Teaching as Conditioned by the 
Aims Outlined Above 

Since the laboratory method came into use among biol- ^^"^^^^^^ 
ogists, there has been a disposition, growing out of its very retarded by 
excellences, to make a fetich of it, to refuse to recognize the p^^ P^^a- 
necessity of other methods, to be intolerant of any science 
courses not employing the laboratory, and to affect a 
lofty disdain of any pedagogical discussion of the ques- 
tion whatsoever. The tone in which all this is done sug- 
gests a boast; but to the discriminating it amounts to a 
confession! The result of it has been to retard the de- 
velopment of biology to its rightful place as one of the most 
foundational and catholic of all educational fields. The 
great variety of aim and of matter not merely allow, but 
make imperative, the use of all possible methods; and 
there is no method found fruitful in education which does 
not lend itself to use in biology. The lecture method, the 
textbook, the recitation, the quiz and the inverted quiz, 
the method of assigned readings and reports, the method of 
conference and seminar, the laboratory method, and the 
field method are all applicable and needed in every course, 
even the most elementary. 

Our method has thus crystallized about the laboratory as Pro^stitution 
the one essential thing; but worse, we have used the very laboratory 
shortcomings of the laboratory as an excuse for extending 
its sway. The laboratory method is the method of research 
in biology. It is our only way to discover, unknown facts. 
Is it, therefore, the best way to rediscover facts? This 
does not necessarily follow, though we have assumed it. 
Self-discovered facts are no better nor more true than com- 
municated facts, and it takes more time to get them. The 
laboratory is the slowest possible way of getting facts. 



tory work 



100 College Teaching 

We have tried to correct this quantitative difl&culty by ex- 
tending the laboratory time, by speeding up, by confining 
ourselves to static types of facts like those of structure, 
and by using detailed laboratory guides for matter and 
method, all of which tends to make the laboratory exer- 
cise one of routine and the mere observation and record- 
ing of facts or a verification of the statements in manuals. 
The correction of these well-known limitations of the 
laboratory must come, in my opinion, by a frank recog- 
nition of, and breaking away from, certain of our mis- 
apprehensions about the function of the laboratory. Some 
of these are: 
Real pur- 1. That the chief facts of a science should be rediscovered 

possibmty ^y ^^ student in the laboratory. This is not true. Life 
of ^abora- is too short. The great mass of the student's facts must 
come from the instructor and from books. The laboratory 
has as its function in respect to facts, some very vital 
things: as, making clear certain classes of facts which the 
student cannot visualize without concrete demonstration; 
giving vividness to facts in general; gaining of enough 
facts at first hand to enable him to hold in solution the 
great mass of facts which he must take second hand; to 
give him skill and accuracy in observation and in record- 
ing discoveries; to give appreciation of the way in which 
all the second-hand facts have been reached; to give taste 
and enthusiasm for asking questions and confidence and 
persistence in finding answers for them. Anything more 
than this is waste of time. These results are not gained 
by mere quantity of work, but only through constant and 
intelligent guidance of the student's attitude in the process 
of dealing with facts. 

2. A feeling that the laboratory or scientific method con- 
sists primarily of observation of facts and their record. 
In reality these are three great steps instead of one in 
this method, which the student of biology should master: 
(1) the getting of facts, one device for doing which is 
observation; (2) the appraisal and discriinination of these 
facts to find which are important; and (3) the drawing 



The Teaching of Biology 101 

of the conclusions which these facts seem to warrant. There 
are two practical corollaries of this truth. One is that 
the laboratory should be so administered that the pupil 
shall appreciate the full scope of the scientific method, its 
tremendous historic value to the race, and the necessity 
of using all the steps of it faithfully in all future progress 
as well as in the sound solution of our individual prob- 
lems and the guidance of conduct. The second is that 
we may make errors in our scientific conclusions and in 
life conclusions, through failure to discriminate among 
our facts, quite as fatally as through lack of facts. Indeed, 
my personal conviction is that more failures are due to 
lack of discrimination than to lack of observation. The 
power to weigh evidence is at least as important as the power 
to collect it. 

3. A disposition to deny the student the right to reach 
conclusions in the laboratory, — or, as we flamboyantly 
say, to " generalize." Now in reality the only earthly value 
of facts is to get truth, — that is, conclusions or general- 
izations. To deny this privilege is taxation without repre- 
sentation in respect to personality. The purpose of the 
laboratory is to enable students to think, to think accu- 
rately and with purpose, to reach their own conclusions. 
The getting of facts by observation is only a minor detail. 
In reality, the data the student can get from books are much 
more reliable than his own observations are likely to be. 
Our laboratory training should add gradually to the accu- 
racy of his observations, but particularly it should enable 
him to use his own and other persons' facts conjointly, 
and with proper discrimination, in reaching conclusions. 
To do other than this tends to abort the reasoning atti- 
tude and power, and teaches the pupil to stand passive 
in the presence of facts and to divorce facts and conclu- 
sions. The fear is, of course, that the students will get 
wrong conclusions and acquire the habit of jumping pre- 
maturely to generalizations. But this situation, while criti- 
cal, is the very glory of the method. What we want to do 
is to ask them continually, — wherever possible, — where 



102 College Teaching 

their facts seem to lead them. Their conclusions are 
liable to be quite wrong, to be sure. But our province as 
teachers is to see that the facts ignorance of which made this 
conclusion wrong are brought to" their attention, — and it 
is not absolutely material whether they discover these 
facts themselves or some one else does. What we want 
to compass is practice in reaching conclusions, and the 
recognition of the necessity of getting and discriminating 
facts in doing so, together with a realization that there 
are probably many other facts which we have not dis- 
covered that would modify our conclusions. This keeps 
the mind open. In other words, the student may thus 
be brought to realize the meaning of the " working hypoth- 
esis " and the method of approximation to truth. It 
makes no difference if one " jumps to a conclusion," if 
he jumps in the light of all his known facts and holds 
his conclusion tentatively. It is much better to reach wrong 
conclusions through inadequate facts than to have the 
mind come to a standstill in the presence of facts. Instead 
of being a threat, reaching a wrong conclusion gives us the 
opportunity to train students in holding their conclusions 
open-mindedly and subject to revision through new facts. 
Reaching wrong or partial conclusions and correcting them 
may be made even more educative than reaching right ones 
at the outset. This would not be true if the conclusion were 
being sought for the sake of the science. But it is being 
sought solely for the sake of the student. The distinction is 
important. The inability to make it is one of the reasons 
why research men so often fail as teachers. 

All through life the student will be forced to draw con- 
clusions from two types of facts, — both of which will be 
incomplete: those he himself has observed and those which 
came to him from other observers. While he must always 
feel free to try out any and all facts for himself, it is 
quite as important in practice that he be able to weigh 
other persons' facts discriminatingly. We teach in the 
laboratory that the pupil should not take his facts second 
hand, though we rather insist that he do so with his con- 



The Teaching of Biology 103 



elusions. In reality it is often much better to take our 
facts second hand; the stultifying thing is to take our con- 
clusions so. 

4. The dependence upon outlines and manuals. This 
is one of the most deadening devices that we have insti- 
tuted to economize gray matter and increase the quantity 
of laboratory records at the expense of real initiative and 
thinking. It is easy for the reader to analyze for him- 
self the mental reaction, or lack of it, of the student in fol- 
lowing the usual detailed laboratory outline. Every lahora- ^J^J^f 
tory exercise should he an educative situation calling for a mental re- 
complete mental reaction from the pupil. In the first place, ^^^^ 
no exercise should be used which is not really vital and laboratory 
educative. This assured, the full mental reaction of the 
student should be about as follows: 

(1) The cursory survey of the situation. 

(2) The raising by the student of such questions as seem 
to him interesting or worthy of solution. (Here, of course, 
the teacher can by skillful questioning lead the class to 
raise all necessary problems, and increase the student's 
willingness to attack them.) 

(3) The determination through class conference of the 
order and method of attacking the problems, and the 
reasons therefor. 

(4) The accumulation and record of discovered facts 
(sharply eliminating all inferences). 

(5) The arrangement (classification) and appraisal (dis- 
crimination) of the discovered facts. 

(6) Conclusions or inferences from the facts. (These 
should be very sharply and critically examined by teacher 
and class, to see to what extent they are really valid and 
supported by the facts.) 

(7) Retesting of conclusions by new facts submitted 
by class, by teacher, or from books, with an effort to dimin- 
ish prejudice as a factor in conclusions, and to increase 
the willingness to approach our own conclusions with an 
open mind. 



104 



College Teaching 



When laboratory outlines are used at all they should con- 
sist merely of directions, and suggestions, and stimulating 
questions which will start the pupils on the main quest, 
— the raising and solving of their own problems. 



Some Moot Problems ^ 



Ascending or 

descending 

order? 



Morphology 
versus other 
interests 



1. Shall we begin with the simple, little-known, lower 
forms and follow the ascending order, which is analogous 
at least to the evolutionary order? Or shall we begin with 
the more complex but better-known forms and go down- 
ward? It seems to the writer that the former method has 
the advantage in actual interest; in its suggestiveness of 
evolution, which is the most important single impression 
the student will get from his course; and in the mental 
satisfactions that come to pupil and teacher alike from 
the sense of progress. However, our material is so rich, 
so interesting, and so plastic that it makes little difference 
where we begin if only we have a clear idea of what we 
want to accomplish. 

2. What proportion of time should be given to mor- 
phology in relation to other interests? For several reasons 
morphology has been overemphasized. It lends itself to 
the older conception of the laboratory as a place to ob- 
serve and record facts. It offers little temptation to reach 
conclusions. It calls for little use of gray matter. This 
makes it an easy laboratory enterprise. It is what the 
grade teachers call " busy " work, and can be multiplied 
indefinitely. It can be made to smack of exactness and 
thoroughness. 

Furthermore, morphology is in reality a basal considera- 
tion. It is a legitimate part of an introductory course, — 
but never for its own sake nor to prepare for higher 
courses. But morphology is, however, only the starting 
point for the higher mental processes by which different 
forms of organisms are compared, for the correlating of 
structure with activity, for appreciation of adaptations of 

1 These problems relate particularly to the introductory courses. 



The Teaching of Biology 105 

structure both to function and to environmental influence. 
It thus serves as a foundation upon which to build con- 
clusions about really vital matters. Experience teaches 
that sensitiveness, behavior, and other activities and powers 
and processes interest young people more than structure. 
The student's views are essentially sound at this point. 
The introductory course should, therefore, be a cycle 
in which the student passes quite freely back and forth 
between form, powers, activities, conditions of life, and the 
conclusions as to the meanings of these. It is important 
only that he shall know with which consideration he is from 
time to time engaged. 

3. Shall a few forms be studied thoroughly, or many Few types 
forms be studied more superficially? There is something ° °^^"y- 
of value in each of these practices. It is possible to over- 
emphasize the idea of thoroughness in the introductory 
courses. Thoroughness is purely a relative condition any- 
way, since we cannot really master any type. It seems 

poor pedagogy, in an elementary class particularly, to 
emphasize small and difficult forms or organs because 
they demand more painstaking and skill on the part of the 
student. My own practice in the elementary course is to 
have a very few specially favorable forms studied with a 
good deal of care, and a much larger number studied par- 
tially, emphasizing those points which they illustrate very 
effectively. 

4. What proportion of time should be given to the various Distribution 

rt <r\i«;r/»TT "!• • villi w 

methods of work? Manifestly the answer to this question 
depends upon the local equipment and upon the character 
of the course itself. The suggestion here relates primarily 
to the general or introductory courses. It seems to me 
that a sound division of time would be: two or three hours 
per week of class exercises (lectures, recitations, reports, 
quiz, etc.) demanding not less than four hours of prepara- 
tion in text and library work; and four to six hours a 
week of " practical " work with organisms, about two hours 
of which should take the form of studies in the field wher- 
ever this is possible. 



106 



College Teaching 



Weakness of 
the research 
man as a 
teacher for 
the begin- 
ning course 



Necessity of 
differentia- 
tion and rec- 
ognition of 
the two 
functions 



5. Is the " research " man the best teacher for the in- 
troductory courses? In spite of a good deal of prejudg- 
ment on the part of college and university administrators 
and of the research biologists themselves, I am convinced 
he is not. While there are notable exceptions, my own 
observation is that the investigator, whether the head pro- 
fessor or the " teaching fellow," usually does not have the 
mental attitude that makes a successful teacher, at least of 
elementary classes, — and for these reasons: he begrudges 
the time spent in teaching elementary classes,- presents the 
subject as primarily preparatory to upper courses, sub- 
ordinates the human elements to the scientific elements, and 
actually exploits the class in the interest of research. The 
real teacher's question about an entering class is this: 
" How can I best use the materials of our science to make 
real men and women out of these people? " The question 
of the professional investigator is likely to be: " How many 
of these people are fit to become investigators, and how 
can I most surely find them and interest them in the 
science? " This is a perfectly fine and legitimate question; 
but it is not an appropriate one until the first one has been 
answered. It has been assumed that the answers to the 
two questions are identical. This is one of the most vicious 
assumptions in higher education today, in my opinion. 
Furthermore, the investigator with his interests centering 
at the margins of the unknown cannot use the scientific 
method as a teacher, whose interest must center in the 
pupil. The points of view are not merely not identical; 
they are incompatible. 

Experience indicates the wisdom of having all beginning 
courses in biology in colleges and universities given by 
teachers and not by investigators, mature or immature. 
All people who propose to teach biology in the high schools 
should have their early courses given from this human 
point of view, that they may be the better able to come 
back to it after their graduate work, in their efforts to 
organize courses for pupils the greater part of whom will 
never have any but a life interest in the subject. The 



The Teaching of Biology 



107 



problem of presenting the advanced and special courses is 
relatively an easy one. The investigator is the best possible 
teacher for advanced students in his own special field if 
he is endowed with any common sense at all. 



Tests of Effectiveness of Teaching 

As yet we are notably lacking in regard to the measure- 
ment of progress as the result of our teaching. Our usual 
tests — examination, recitation, quiz, reports, laboratory 
notebooks — evaluate in a measure work done, knowledge 
or general grasp acquired, and accuracy developed. We 
need, however, measurements of skill, of habits, and of the 
still more intangible attitudes and appreciations. These 
may be gained in part by furnishing really educative situa- 
tions and observing the time and character of the student's 
reaction. Every true teacher is in reality an experimental 
psychologist, and must apply directly the methods of the 
psychologist. 

The laboratory and field furnish opportunity for this More vital 

sort of testing. The student may be confronted with an un- ^^il^ ^^ 

familiar organism or situation and be given a limited teaching 

must be 
time in which to obtain and record his results. He may found 

be asked to state and enumerate the problems that are 
suggested by the situation; outline a method of solving 
them; discover as large a body of facts as possible; ar- 
range them in an order that seems to him logical, with 
his reasons; and to make whatever inferences seem to him 
sound in the light of facts, — supporting his conclusions at 
every point. The ability to make such a total mental re- 
action promptly and comprehendingly is the best test of any 
teaching whatsoever. The important thing is that we shall 
not ourselves lose sight of the essential parts of it in our 
enthusiasm for one portion of it. 

In judging attitude and appreciation I think it is pos- 
sible for discriminating teachers to obtain the testimony 
of the pupil himself in appraisal of his own progress and 
attitude. This needs to be done indirectly, to be sure. 



108 



College Teaching 



The student's self -judgment may not be accurate; but it is 
not at all impossible to secure a disposition in students 
to measure and estimate their own progress in these various 
things with some accuracy and fairness of mind. Besides 
its incidental value as a test, I know of no realm of 
biological observation, discrimination, and conclusion more 
likely to prove profitable to the student than this effort to 
estimate, without prejudice, his own growth. 



Scarcity of 
authoritative 
pedagogical 
literature in 
tiology 



The Literature of the Subject 

For various reasons very little attention has been given 
to the pedagogy of college biology by those in the best 
position to throw light upon this vital problem. More in- 
formation as to the attitude of teachers of the subject is 
to be derived from college and university catalogs than 
elsewhere,^ — howbeit of a somewhat stereotyped and 
standardized kind. Much more has been written relative 
to the teaching of biology in the secondary schools. In my 
opinion the most effective teaching of biology in America 
today is being done in the best high schools by teachers 
who have been forced to acquire a pedagogical background 
that would enable them to reconstruct completely their 
presentation of the subject. Most of these people obtained 
very little help in this task from their college courses in 
biology. For these reasons every college teacher will 
greatly profit by studying what has been written for the 
secondary teachers. School Science and Mathematics 
(Chicago) is the best source for current views in this field. 
Its files will show no little of the best thought and investiga- 
tion that have been devoted to the principles underlying in- 
struction in biology. Lloyd and Bigelow, in The Teaching 
of Biology (Longmans, Green & Co.), have treated the prob- 
lems of secondary biology at length. Ganong's Teaching 
Botanist (The Macmillan Company) has high value. 

The authors of textbooks of biology, botany, and zoology 
issued during the last ten years have ventured to develop- 
in their prefaces, appendices, and elsewhere, their peda- 



The Teaching of Biology 109 



gogical points of view. The writer has personal knowl- 
edge that teaching suggestions are still resented by some 
college teachers of zoology. Illustrations of the tendency 
to incorporate pedagogical material in textbooks oti 
biological subjects can be found in 

Dodge, C. W. Practical Biology. Harper and Brothers, 1894. 
Gager, C. S. Fundamentals of Botany. P. Blakiston's Son & Co., 

1916. 
Galloway, T. W. Textbook of Zoology. P. Blakiston's Son & Co., 

1915. 
KiNGSLEY, J. S. Textbook of Vertebrate Zoology. H. Holt & Co. 
Petrunkevitch, a. Morphology of Invertebrate Types. The Mac- 

millan Company, 1916. 

T. W. Galloway 

Beloit College 



Bibliography 

Cramer, F. Logical Method in Biology. Popular Science Monthly, 
Vol. 44, page 372. 1894. 

Farlow, W. G. Biological Teaching in Colleges. Popular Science 
Monthly, Vol. 28, page 581. 1886. 

Harvey, N. A. Pedagogical Content of Zoology. Proceedings Na- 
tional Education Association, 1899; page 1106. 

Hodge, C. F. Dynamic Biology. Pedagogical Seminar, Vols. 11-12. 

Huxley, J. H. Educational Value of Natural History Science. Essay 
II, Science and Education, 1854. 

Rusk, R. R. Introduction to Experimental Education. Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1912. 

Saunders, S. J. Value of Research in Education. School Science 
and Mathematics, Vol. II, March, 1902. 

Smallwood, W. M. Biology as a Culture Study. Journal of Peda- 
gogy, Vol. 17, page 231. 

Welton, J. Psychology of Education (chapter on "Character"). 
The Macmillan Company, 1911. 



THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY 



Preparation ^ OME of the students ' entering classes in chemistry in 
students a k3 College have already had an elementary course in the 
determining subject in the high school or academy, while others have 
not. Again, some study chemistry in college merely for the 
sake of general information and culture, while many others 
pursue the subject because the vocation they are planning 
to make their life's work requires a more or less extensive 
knowledge of chemistry. Thus, all students in the natural 
sciences and their applications — as we have them in 
medicine, engineering, agriculture, and home economics — 
as well as those who are training to become professional 
chemists, either in the arts and industries or in teaching, 
must devote a considerable amount of time and energy 
to the study of chemistry. The teacher of college chemistry 
consequently must take into consideration the preparation 
with which the student enters his classes and also the end 
which is to be attained by the pursuit of the subject in the 
case of the various groups of students mentioned. 

In the larger high schools courses in chemistry are now 
quite generally offered, but this is not yet true of the smaller 
schools. In some colleges those who have had high school 
chemistry are at once placed into advanced work without 
taking the usual basal course in general chemistry which is 
so arranged that students can enter it who have had no 
previous knowledge of the subject. In other words, in some 
cases the college builds directly upon the high school course 
in chemistry. As a rule, however, this does not prove very 
successful, for the high school course in chemistry is not 
primarily designed as a course upon which advanced college 
chemistry can be founded. This is as it should be, for 
after all, while the high school prepares students for college, 
its chief purpose is to act as a finishing school for tho=e 

larger numbers of students who never go to college. The 

110 



TJie Teaching of Chemistry 111 

high school course in chemistry is consequently properly 
designed to give certain important chemical facts and point 
out their more immediate applications in the ordinary walks 
of life, as far as this can properly be done in the allotted 
time with a student of high school age and maturity. The 
result is consequently that while such work can very well 
be accepted toward satisfying- college entrance requirements, 
it is only rarely sufficient as a basis for advanced college 
courses in the subject. As a rule it is best to ask all 
students to take the basal course in general chemistry 
offered in college, arranging somewhat more advanced ex- 
periments in the laboratory wherever necessary for those 
who have had chemistry in preparatory schools. This has 
become the writer's practice after careful trial of other 
expedients. The scheme has on the whole worked out 
fairly well, for it is sufficiently elastic to meet the needs 
of the individual students, who naturally come with 
preparation that is quite varied. Almost invariably 
students who, on account of their course in high school 
chemistry, are excused from the general basal course in 
college chemistry have been handicapped forever after- 
ward in their advanced work in the subject. 

The first year's work in college chemistry consists of Organization 
11- T • 1 1 r n 1 1 • ^ of first-year 

general chemistry. It is basal tor all work that is to course 

follow, and yet at the same time it is a finished course, 
giving a well-rounded survey of the subject to all who do 
not care to pursue it further. This basal course is com- 
monly given in the freshman year, though sometimes it is 
deferred to the sophomore year. Its content is now fairly 
uniform in different colleges, the first semester being com- 
monly devoted to general fundamental considerations and 
the chemistry of the non-metals, while the metals receive 
attention in the second semester, the elements of qualitative 
analysis being in some cases taught in connection with the 
chemistry of the metals. 

The work is almost universally conducted by means of 
lectures, laboratory work, and recitations. The lectures 
have the purpose to unfold the subject, give general orienta- 



General 
chemistry 



112 College Teaching 

tion as to the most important fundamental topics and 
points of view, and furnish impetus, guidance, and in- 
spiration for laboratory study and reading. To this end 
the lectures should be illustrated by means of carefully 
chosen and well-prepared experiments. These serve not 
only to illustrate typical chemical processes, and funda- 
mental laws, but they also stimulate interest and teach the 
student many valuable points of manipulation, for it is 
well-nigh impossible to watch an expert manipulator with- 
out absorbing valuable hints on the building up, arranging, 
and handling of apparatus. In the lectures the material 
should be presented slowly, carefully, and clearly, so that 
it may readily be followed by the student. Facts should 
always be placed in the foreground, and they should be 
made the basis of the generalization we call laws, and then 
the latter naturally lead to theoretical conceptions. It 
is a great mistake to begin with the atomic theory practi- 
cally the first day and try to bolster up that theory with 
facts later on as concrete cases of chemical action are 
studied. On the other hand, it is also quite unwise to 
defer the introduction of theoretical conceptions too long, 
for the atomic theory is a great aid in making rapid pro- 
gress in the study of chemistry. At least two or three 
weeks are well spent in studying fundamental chemical re- 
actions as facts quite independent of any theories whatso- 
ever, in order that the student may thoroughly appreciate 
the nature of chemical change and become familiar with 
enough characteristic and typical cases of chemical action 
so that the general laws of chemical combination by weight 
and by volume may be logically deduced and the atomic 
and molecular theories presented as based upon those laws. 
Up to this stage the reactions should be written out in 
words and all formulation should be avoided, so that the 
student will not get the idea that " chemistry is the science 
of signs and symbols," or that " chemistry is a hypotheti- 
cal science," but that he will feel that chemistry deals with 
certain very definite, characteristic, and fundamental 
changes of matter in which new substances are formed, 



The Teaching of Chemistry 



113 



and that these processes always go on in accordance with 
fixed and invariable laws, though they are influenced by 
conditions of temperature, pressure, light, electricity, and 
the presence of other substances in larger or smaller 
amounts. The theory and formulation when properly in- 
troduced should be an aid to the student, leading him to see 
that the expression of chemical facts is simplified thereby. 
Thus he will never make the error of regarding the symbol 
as the fundamental thing, but he will from the very out- 
set look upon it simply as a useful form of shorthand 
expression, as it were, which is also a great aid in chemical 
thinking. Facts and theories should ever be kept dis- 
tinct and separate in the student's mind, if he is to make 
real progress in the science. 

A thoroughgoing, logical presentation of the subject, 
leading the student slowly and with a sense of perfect 
comprehension into the deeper and more difficult phases, 
should constitute one of the prime features of the work of 
the first year. Interest should constantly be stimulated by 
references to the historical development of the subject, 
to the practical applications in the arts and industries, 
to sanitation and the treatment of disease, to the providing 
of proper food, clothing, fuel, and shelter, to the prob- 
lems of transportation and communication, to the chemical 
changes that are constantly going on in the atmosphere, 
the waters, and the crust of the earth as well as in all 
living beings. Nevertheless, all the time the science should 
be taught as the backbone of the entire course. The allu- 
sions to history and the manifold applications to daily 
life are indeed very important, but they must never obscure 
the science itself, for only thus can a thorough compre- 
hension of chemistry be imparted and the benefits of the 
mental drill and culture be vouchsafed to the student. 

For the freshman and sophomore, two lectures per week 

■ are sufficient for this type of instruction. In these exercises ^^^^^^ 

the student should give his undivided attention to what is 

presented by the lecturer. The taking of notes is to be 

discouraged rather than encouraged, for it results in divid- 



Methods of 
teaching — 
The Lecture 



114 College Teaching 

ing the attention between what is presented and the 
mechanical work of writing. To take the place of the 
usual lecture notes, students of this grade had better be 
provided with a suitable text, definite chapters in which 
are assigned for reading in connection with each lecture. 
The text thus serves for purposes of review, and also as a 
means for inculcating additional details which cannot to 
advantage be presented in a lecture, but are best studied at 
home by perusing a book, the contents of which have been 
illuminated by the experimental demonstrations, the ex- 
planations on the blackboard, the charts, lantern slides, and 
above all the living development and presentation of the 
subject by the lecturer. The lectures should in no case 
be conducted primarily as an exercise in dictation and 
note taking. If the lectures do not give general orienta- 
tion, illumination, and inspiration for further study in 
laboratory and library, they are an absolute failure and 
had better be omitted entirely. On the other hand, when 
properly conducted the lectures are the very life of the 
course. 
The The laboratory work should be well correlated with 

work the lectures, especially during the first year. The ex- 

periments to be performed by the student should be care- 
fully chosen and should not be a mere repetition of the 
lecture demonstrations. The laboratory experiments 
should be both qualitative and quantitative in character. 
They should on the one hand illustrate the peculiar prop- 
erties of the substances studied and the typical concomitant 
changes of chemical action, but on the other hand a suffi- 
cient number of quantitative exercises in the laboratory 
should be introduced to bring home to the student the 
laws of combining weights and volumes, thus giving him 
the idea that chemistry is exact and that quantitative rela- 
tions always obtain when chemical action takes place. At 
the same time the quantitative exercises lay the basis foi 
the proper comprehension of the laws of combining weights 
and volumes and the atomic and molecular theories. At 
least three periods of two consecutive hours each should 



The Teaching of Chemistry 115 

be spent in the laboratory per week, and the laboratory 
exercises should be made so interesting and instructive 
that the student will feel inclined to work in the laboratory 
at odd times in addition if his program of other studies 
permits. The laboratory should at all times be, as its name 
implies, a place where work is done. Order and neatness 
should always prevail. Apparatus should be kept neat 
and clean, and in no case should slovenly habits of setting 
up apparatus be tolerated. The early introduction of a cer- 
tain amount of quantitative experimentation in the course 
makes for habits of order and neatness in experimentation 
and guards against bringing up " sloppy " chemists. 

The laboratory notebook should be a neat and accurate 
record of the work in the laboratory. To this end the en- 
tries in the notebook should be made in the laboratory at 
the time when the experiment is actually being performed. 
The writing of data on loose scratch paper and then finally 
writing up the notebook later at home from such sheets 
is not to be recommended, for while thus the final appear- 
ance of the notebook may be improved, it is no longer a 
first-hand record such as every scientist makes, but rather 
a transcribed one. The student, in making up such a 
transcription, is only too apt to draw upon his inner con- 
sciousness to make the book appear better; indeed, when 
he has neglected to transcribe his notes for several days, 
he is bound to produce anything but a true and accurate 
record, to say nothing about being put to the temptation 
to " fake " results which he has either not at all obtained 
in the laboratory, or has recorded so imperfectly on the 
scratch paper that he can no longer interpret his record 
properly. The only true way is to have the notes made 
directly in the permanently bound notebook at the time 
when the experiment is actually in progress. The student 
ought not to take the laboratory notebook home at all with- 
out the instructor's knowledge and permission. Each 
experiment should be entered in the notebook in a brief, 
businesslike manner. Long-winded, superfluous discus- 
sions should be avoided. As a rule, drawings of ap- 



116 College Teaching 

paratus in the notes are unnecessary, it being sufficient to 
indicate that the apparatus was set up according to Figure 
so-and-so in the laboratory manual or according to the di- 
rections given on page so-and-so. The student should be 
made to feel that the laboratory is the place where careful, 
purposeful experimentation is to be done, that this is the 
main object of the laboratory work, and that the note- 
book is merely a reliable record of what has been accom- 
plished. To this end the data in the notebook should be 
The complete, yet brief and to the point, so that what has 

laboratory been done can be looked up again and that the instructor 
record may know that the experiment has been performed prop- 

erly, that its purpose was understood by the student, and 
that he has made correct observations and drawn logical 
conclusions therefrom. While in each case the notes 
should indicate the purpose of the experiment, what has 
actually been done and observed, and the final conclusions, 
it is on the whole best not to have a general cut-and-dried 
formula according to which each and every experiment is 
to be recorded. It is better to encourage a certain degree 
of individuality in this matter on the part of each student. 
Notebooks should be corrected by the teacher every week, 
and the student should be asked to correct all errors which 
the teacher has indicated. A businesslike atmosphere 
should prevail in the laboratory at all times, and this 
should be reflected in the notebooks. Anythins; that savors 
of the pedantic is to be strictly avoided. Small black- 
boards should be conveniently placed in the laboratory 
so that the instructor may use them in explaining any points 
that may arise. Usually the same question arises with 
several members of the class, and a few moments of 
explanation before the blackboard enable the instructor 
to clear up the points raised. This not only saves the 
instructor's time, but it also stimulates interest in the 
laboratory when explanations are thus given to small 
groups just when the question is hot. 

It is, of course, assumed that the necessary amount of 
apparatus, chemicals, and other supplies is available, and 



The Teaching of Chemistry 117 

that the laboratory desks, proper ventilation of the rooms, 
and safeguards in the case of all experiments fraught with 
danger have received the necessary painstaking attention 
on the part of the instructor, who must never for a moment 
relax in looking after these matters, which it is not the 
purpose to discuss here. At all times the student should 
work intelligently and be fully aware of any dangers that 
are inherent in what he is doing. It need hardly be said 
that a beginner should not be set at experiments that are 
specially dangerous. Having been given proper direc- 
tions, the student should be taught to go ahead with con- 
fidence, for working in constant trepidation that an acci- 
dent may occur often creates a nervous state that brings 
about the accident. Too much emphasis cannot be laid 
upon proper, definite laboratory instructions, especially 
as to kinds and amounts of materials to be used. Such 
directions as " take a little phosphorus," for example, 
should be strictly avoided, for the direction as to amount 
is absolutely indefinite and may in the case where phos- 
phorus or any other dangerous substance is used lead to 
dire accidents. The student should be given proper and 
very definite directions, and then he should be taught to 
follow these absolutely and not use more of the materials 
than is specified, as the beginner is so apt to do, thus often 
wasting his time and the reagents as well. Economy and 
the correct use of all laboratory supplies should be in- 
culcated indirectly all the time. A fixed set of printed 
rules for the laboratory is generally neither necessary nor 
desirable when students are properly directed to work in- 
telligently as they go, and good directions are given in 
the laboratory manual. Thus a spirit of doing intelligently 
what is right and proper, guarding against accidents, 
economizing in time and materials of all kinds will soon 
become dominant in the laboratory and will greatly add 
to the efficiency of the workers. Minor accidents are almost 
bound to occur at times in spite of all precautions, and 
the instructor should be ready to cope with these promptly 
by means of a properly supplied first-aid kit. 



118 College Teaching 

Eecitations For Students of the first year quizzes or recitations should 

be held at least twice a week. In these exercises the ground 
covered in the lectures and laboratory work should be 
carefully and systematically reviewed. The quiz classes 
should not be too large. Twenty-five students is the upper 
limit for a quiz section. The laboratory sections too 
should not be larger than this, and it is highly desirable 
that the same instructor conduct both the recitation and 
the immediate laboratory supervision of the student. 
Lecture classes can, of course, be very much larger in 
number. In most colleges the attendance upon classes in 
chemistry is so large that it is not possible for the professor 
to deliver the lectures and also personally conduct all 
of the laboratory work and recitations. It is consequently 
necessary to divide the class up into small sections for 
laboratory and quiz purposes. It is highly desirable that 
the student become well acquainted with his individual in- 
structor in laboratory and quiz work, and therefore it would 
be unfortunate to have one instructor in the laboratory and 
still another instructor in the quiz. It might be argued 
that it is a good thing to have the student become acquainted 
with a number of instructors, but in the writer's experience 
such practice results to the disadvantage of the student, 
and is consequently not to be recommended. 

In the recitations the student is to be encouraged to do 
the talking. He is to be given an opportunity to ask ques- 
tions as well as to answer the queries put by the teacher. 
Short written exercises of about ten minutes' duration can 
be given to advantage in each of these recitations. In 
this way the entire class writes upon a well-chosen ques- 
tion or solves a numerical chemical problem and thus a 
great deal of time is saved. The quiz room should be well 
provided with blackboards which may be used to great 
advantage in the writing of equations and the solution of 
chemical problems just as in a class in mathematics. The 
textbook, from which readings are assigned to the student 
in connection with the lectures, should contain questions 
which recapitulate the contents of each chapter. When 



The Teaching o'f Chemistry 119 

such questions are not contained in the book, they ought 
to be provided by the teacher on printed or mimeographed 
sheets. When properly conducted, .the recitation aids 
greatly in clarifying, arranging and fixing the important 
points of the course in the mind of the student. Young 
instructors are apt to make the mistake of doing too much 
talking in the quiz, instead of encouraging the student to 
express his views. In these days, when foreign languages 
and mathematics are more or less on the wane in colleges, 
the proper study of chemistry, particularly in the well- 
conducted quiz, will go far toward supplying the mental 
drill which the older subjects have always afforded. 

If the work of the first year has been properly con- Summary 
ducted, it will have given the student a general view of the course ^^^"^ 
whole field of chemistry, together with a sufficient amount 
of detail so securely anchored in careful laboratory work 
and practical experience as to form a basis for either more 
advanced work in chemical lines or in the pursuance of the 
vocations already mentioned in which a knowledge of 
chemistry is basal. It is hardly necessary to add that if well 
taught, the student will at the end of such a course have a 
desire for more chemistry. 

The work of the second year of chemistry in college Organiza- 
generally consists of quantitative analysis, though the more second-year 
intensive study of the compounds of carbon, known as course 
organic chemistry, is also frequently taken up at this 
time, and there is much to be said in favor of such prac- 
tice. 

In the Quantitative analysis, habits of neatness and ac- Content of 

t/ll3 coiirs6 

curacy must be insisted upon. It is well to give the gen- in quantita- 
eral orientation and directions by means of lectures. One tive analysis 
or two such exercises per week will suffice. There should 
also be recitations. When two lectures per week are given, 
it will suffice to review the work with the student in con- 
nection with such lectures, provided the class is not too 
large for quiz purposes. Intelligent work should charac- 
terize a course in quantitative analysis. To this end the 
student should be taught how to* take proper representa- 



120 College Teaching 

tive samples of the material to be analyzed. He should 
then be taught how to weigh or measure out that sample 
with proper care. The manipulations of the analytical 
process should be carried out so that each step is properly 
understood and its relations to the general laws of chem- 
istry are constantly before the mind. In carrying out the 
process, the various sources of error must be thoroughly 
appreciated and guarded against. The final weighing or 
measuring of the form in which the ingredient sought is 
estimated should again be carried out with care, and in 
the calculation of the percentage content due regard should 
be had for the limits of error of experimentation through- 
out the entire analytical process. The student feels that a 
large number of the exercises in quantitative analysis are 
virtually cases of making chemical preparations of the 
highest possible purity, thus connecting his previous chem- 
ical experience with his quantitative work. The course in 
quantitative analysis should cover the determination of the 
more important basic and acid radicals, and should con- 
sist of both gravimetric and volumetric exercises. 

The choice of the exercises is of great importance. It 
may vary, and should vary considerably in different cases. 
Thus a student in agriculture is naturally interested in the 
methods of estimating lime, phosphorus, nitrogen, potash, 
silica, sulphur, etc., whereas a student in engineering would 
be more interested in work with the heavy metals and the 
ingredients which the commercial samples of such metals 
are apt to contain. Thus, analytical work on solder, bear- 
ing metal, iron and steel, cement, etc., should be introduced 
as soon as the student in engineering is ready for it. It 
is quite possible to inculcate the principles of quantita- 
tive analysis by selecting exercises in which the individual 
student is interested, though, to be sure, certain fundamental 
things would naturally have to be taken by all students, what- 
ever be the line for which they are training. A few exercises 
in gas analysis and also water analysis should be given in 
every good course in quantitative analysis that occupies an 
entire year. Careful attention should be given to the note- 



The Teaching of Chemistry 121 

book in the quantitative work, and the student should also be 
made to feel that in modern quantitative analysis not only 
balances and burettes are to serve as the measuring instru- 
ments, but that the polariscope and the refractometer also 
are very important, and that at times still other physical 
instruments like the spectroscope, the electrometer, and the 
viscometer may prove very useful indeed. 

The quantitative analysis offers a splendid opportunity 
for bringing home to the student what he has learned in the 
work of the first year, showing him one phase of the ap- 
plication of that knowledge and making him feel, as it were, 
the quantitative side of science. This latter view can be 
imparted only to a limited degree in the first year's work, 
but the quantitative course offers an unusual opportunity 
for giving the student an application of the fundamental 
quantitative laws which govern all chemical processes. It 
is not possible to analyze very many substances during any 
college course in quantitative analysis. The wise teacher 
will choose the substances to be analyzed so as to keep up 
the interest of the student and yet at the same time give 
him examples of all the fundamental cases that are com- 
monly met in the practice of analytical work. A careful, 
painstaking, intelligent worker should be the result of the 
course in quantitative analysis. Toward the end of the 
course, too, a certain amount of speed should be insisted 
upon. The student should be taught to carry on several 
processes at the same time, but care should be taken not to 
overdo this. 

In the course in organic chemistry, lectures, laboratory The course 
, o 1 ^ ,.• • inorganic 

work, and recitations, arranged very much as to time as m chemistry 

the first year, will be found advantageous. If the inten- 
sive work in organic chemistry is postponed to the third 
year in college, there are certain advantages. For example, 
the student is more mature and has had drill and experience 
in the somewhat simpler processes commonly taught in gen- 
eral and analytical chemistry. On the other hand, the post- 
poning of organic chemistry to the third year has the dis- 
advantage that the student goes through his basal training 



122 College Teaching 

in quantitative analysis without the help of that larger 
horizon which can come to him only through the study 
of the methods of organic chemistry. The general work 
of the first year, to be sure, if well done compensates in 
part for what is lost by postponing organic chemistry till 
the third year, but it can never entirely remove the loss 
to the student. Teachers will differ as to whether the 
time-honored division of organic chemistry into the ali- 
phatic and aromatic series should be maintained pedagogi- 
cally, but they will doubtless all agree that the methods 
of working out the structure of the chemical compound are 
peculiarly characteristic of the study of the compounds of 
carbon, and these methods must consequently constitute 
an important point to be inculcated in organic chemistry. 
The derivation of the various types of organic compounds 
from the fundamental hydrocarbons as well as from one 
another, and the characteristic reactions of each of these 
fundamental forms which lead to their identification and 
also often serve as a means of their purification, ihould 
naturally be taught in a thoroughgoing manner. The nu- 
merous practical applications which the teacher of organic 
chemistry has at his command will always serve to make this 
subject one of the deepest interest, if not the most fascin- 
ating portion of the entire subject of chemistry. No student 
should leave the course in organic chemistry without feeling 
the beautiful unity and logical relationship which obtains 
in the case of the compounds of carbon, the experimental 
study of which has cast so much light upon the chemical 
processes in living plants and animals, processes upon 
which life itself depends. The analysis of organic com- 
pounds is probably best taught in connection with the course 
in organic chemistry. It is here that the student is intro- 
duced to the use of the combustion furnace and the method 
of working out the empirical formulae of the compounds 
which he has carefully prepared and purified. The labora- 
tory practice in organic chemistry generally requires the 
use of larger pieces of apparatus. Some of the experi- 
ments also are connected with peculiar dangers of their 



The Teaching of Chemistry 123 

own. These facts require that the student should not ap- 
proach the course without sufficient preliminary training. 
Furthermore, the teacher needs to exercise special care in 
supervising the laboratory work so as to guard the student 
against serious accidents. 

The historical development of organic chemistry is espe- 
cially interesting, and allusions to the history of the impor- 
tant discoveries and developments of ideas in organic chem- 
istry should be used to stimulate interest and so enhance the 
value of the work of the student. The practical side of or- 
ganic chemistry should never be lost sight of for a moment, 
and under no condition should the course be allowed to de- 
teriorate into one of mere picturing of structural formulae 
on the blackboard. All chemical formulas are merely 
compact forms of expression of what we know about 
chemical compounds. There are, no doubt, many facts 
about chemical compounds which their accepted formulas 
do not express at all, and the wise teacher should lead the 
student to see this. There is peculiar danger in the course 
in organic chemistry that the pupil become a mere formula 
worshiper, and this must carefully be guarded against. 

The applications of organic chemistry to the arts and 
industries, but especially to biochemistry, will no doubt in- 
terest many members of the class of a course in organic 
chemistry if the subject is properly taught. This will be 
particularly the case if the teacher always holds before the 
mind of the pupil the actual realities in the laboratory and 
in nature, using formulation merely as the expression of 
our knowledge and not as an end in itself. 

Physical chemistry, commonly regarded as the youngest Place of 
and by its adherents the most important and all-pervading chemistry 

branch of chemistry, is presented very early in the college jnthecoi- 

\ ^ , ^ , . . 1 lege curricu- 

course by some teachers, and postponed to the junior and lum 

even the senior year by others. Just as a certain amount of 
organic chemistry should be taught in the first year, so a 
few of the most fundamental principles of physical chem- 
istry must also find a place in the basal work of the be- 
ginner. However, in the first year's work in chemistry so 



124 



College Teaching 



Courses in 

applied 

chemistry 



Enthusias- 
tic teaching 
a vital 
factor 



many phases of the subject must needs be presented in 
order to give a good general view, that many details in 
either organic, analytical, or physical chemistry must neces- 
sarily be omitted. What is to be taught in that important 
basal year must, therefore, be selected with extreme care. 
Moreover, so far as physical chemistry is concerned, it is 
in a way chemical philosophy or general chemistry in the 
broadest sense of the word, and consequently requires for 
its successful pursuit not only a basal course, but also 
proper knowledge of analytical and organic chemistry, as 
well as a grounding in physics, crystallography, and mathe- 
matics. At the same time a certain amount of biological 
study is highly desirable. A good course^ in physical 
chemistry postulates lectures, laboratory work, and recita- 
tions. In general, these should be arranged much like 
those in the basal course and the course in organic chem- 
istry. If anything, more time should be put upon the 
lectures and recitations; certainly more time should be de- 
voted to exercises of this kind than in the course in quan- 
titative analysis, wTiich is best taught in the laboratory. 
At the same time it would be a mistake to teach physical 
chemistry without laboratory practice. Indeed, laboratory 
practice is the very life of physical chemistry, and the more 
of such work we can have, the better. However, since 
physical chemistry, as already stated, delves into the phil- 
osophical field, discussions in the lecture hall and class- 
room become of peculiar importance. 

Many colleges now give additional courses in chemical 
technology. These would naturally come after the student 
has had a sufficient foundation in general chemistry, chem- 
ical analysis, and organic and physical chemistry. As a 
rule such applied courses ought not to be given until the 
junior or senior year. It is a great mistake to introduce 
such courses earlier, for the student cannot do the work 
in an intelligent manner. 

In all the courses in chemistry, interest and enthusiasm 
are of vital importance. These can be instilled only by 
the teacher himself, and no amount of laying out courses 



The Teaching of Chemistry 125 



on paper and giving directions, however valuable they 
may be, can possibly take the place of an able, devoted, 
enthusiastic teacher. Chemistry deals with things, and 
hence is always best taught in the laboratory. The class- 
room and the library should create interest and enthusiasm 
for further laboratory work, and in turn the laboratory 
work should yield results that will finally manifest them- 
selves in the form of good written reports. 

Original work should always be carried on by the college 
teacher. If he fails in this, his teaching will soon be dead. 
There will always be some bright students who can help him 
in his research work. These should be led on and devel- 
oped along lines of original thought. From this source 
there will always spring live workers in the arts and indus- 
tries as well as .in academic lines. Lack of facilities and 
time is often pleaded by the college teacher as an ex- 
cuse for not doing original work. There is no doubt that 
such facilities are often very meager. Nevertheless, the 
enthusiastic teacher is bound to find the time and also the 
means for doing some original work. A great deal can- 
not be expected of him as a rule because of his pedagog- 
ical duties, but a certain amount of productive work 
is absolutely essential to any live college teacher. 

The importance of chemistry in daily life and in the 
industries has been increasing and is bound to continue to 
increase. For this reason the subject is destined to take 
a more important place in the college curriculum. If 
well taught, college chemistry will not only widen the hori- 
zon of the student, but it will also afford him both manual 
training and mental drill and culture of the highest order, 

Louis Kahlenberg 

University of Wisconsin 



The teacher 
must con- 
tinue his re- 
searches 



Future of 
chemistry in 
the college 
curriculum 



VI 

THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS 



Utilitarian 
value of the 
study of 
physics 



Disciplinary 
value of the 
study 



THE need of giving to physics a prominent place in the 
college curriculum of the twentieth century is quite 
universally admitted. If, as an eminent medical authority 
maintains, no man can be said to be educated who has not 
the knowledge of trigonometry, how much more true is 
this statement with reference to physics? The five human 
senses are not more varied in scope than are the five great 
domains of this science. In the study of heat, sound, and 
light we may strive merely to understand the nature of 
the external stimuli that come to us through touch, hear- 
ing and sight; but in mechanics, where we examine criti- 
cally the simplest ideas of motion and inertia, we acquire 
the method of analysis which when applied to the mysteries 
of molecular physics and electricity carries us along 
avenues that lead to the most profound secrets of nature. 
Utilitarian aspects dwindle in our perspective as we face the 
problem of the structure, origin, and evolution of matter 
— as we question the independence of space and time. 
Modern physics possesses philosophic stature of heroic size. 

But with regard to everyday occurrences a study of phys- 
ics is necessary. It is trite to mention the development 
in recent years of those mechanical and electrical arts 
that have made modern civilization. The submarine, vital- 
ized by storage battery and Diesel engine, the torpedo 
with its gyroscopic pilot and pneumatic motors, the wire- 
less transmission of speech over seas and continents — 
these things no longer excite wonder nor claim attention as 
we scan the morning paper; yet how many understand their 
mechanism or appreciate the spirit which has given them 
to the world? 

If culture means the subjective transformation of in- 
formation into a philosophy of life, can culture be complete 
unless it has included in its reflections the marvelously 

126 



The Teaching of Physics 



127 



simple yet intricate interrelations of natural phenomena? 
The value of this intricate simplicity as a mental discipline 
is equaled perhaps only in the finely drawn distinctions 
of philosophy and in the painstaking statements of limita- 
tions and the rapid generalizations of pure mathematics; 
and let us not forget the value of discipline, outgrown 
and unheeded though it be in the acquisitive life of the 
present age. 

The professional student, continually increasing in i^eiationof 
numbers in our colleges, either of science or in certain phuosophy 
branches of law, finds a broad familiarity with the latest '^g^Q^ ^ 
points of view of the physicist not only helpful but often sciences 
indispensable. Chemistry can find with difficulty any arti- 
ficial basis for a boundary of its domain from that of phy- 
sics. Certainly no real one exists. The biologist is heard 
asking about the latest idea in atomic evolution and the 
electrical theories of matter, hoping to find in these illumi- 
nating points of view, he tells us, some analogy to his 
almost hopelessly complex problems of life and heredity. 
Even those medical men whose interest is entirely commer- 
cial appreciate the convenience of the X-ray and the impor- 
tance of correctly interpreting the pathological effects of the 
rays of radio-activity and ultra-violet light. One finds a 
great geologist in collaboration with his distinguished col- 
league in physics, and from the latter comes a contribution 
on the rigidity of the earth. Astronomy answers nowadays 
to the name of astrophysics, and progressive observatories 
recognize in the laboratory a tool as essential as the tele- 
scope. In a word, the professional student of science not 
only finds that the subject matter of physics has many funda- 
mental points of contact with his own chosen field, but also 
recognizes that the less complex nature of its material 
allows the method of study to stand out in bolder relief. 
Training in the method and a passion for the method are 
vital to a successful and an ardent career. 

In the teaching of physics, then, the aim might at first 
sight appear to be quite varied, differing with different 
classes of students. A careful analysis of the situation, 



128 



College Teachiiig 



Should the 
teaching of 
college 
physics 
change its 
aim for dif- 
ferent 
classes of 
students? 



however, will show, we think, that this conclusion can with 
difficulty be justified: that it is necessary to conduct college 
instruction in a fashion dictated almost not at all by the 
subsequent aims of the students concerned. In the more 
elementary work, certainly, adherence to this idea is of 
great importance. The character, design, and purpose of 
an edifice do not appear in the foundations except that they 
are massive if the structure is to be great. 

Not infrequently this seems an unnecessary hardship to a 
professional student anxious to get into the work of his 
chosen field. If such is the case, let him question per- 
haps whether any study of physics should be attempted, 
as this query may have different answers for different in- 
dividuals. But if he is to study it at all, there is but one 
place where the analysis of physical phenomena can be- 
gin, and that is with fundamentals — space, time, motion, 
and inertia. How can one who is ignorant of the exist- 
ence and characteristics of rotational inertia understand a 
galvanometer? How can waves be discussed unless in 
terms of period, amplitude, frequency, and the like, that find 
definition in simple harmonic motion? How does one 
visualize the mechanism of a gas, unless by means of such 
ideas as momentum interchange, energy conservation, and 
forces of attraction? 

Let us emphasize here, lest we be misunderstood, that we 
are considering collegiate courses. We do not doubt that 
descriptive physics may be given after one fashion to 
farmers, quite diff'erently to engineers, and from still a 
third point of view to medical students. Unfortunately 
some collegiate courses never get beyond the high school 
method. Our aim is not to discuss descriptive courses, 
but those that approach the subject with the spirit of 
critical analysis, for these alone do we deem worthy of a 
place in the college curriculum. 

The problem of the descriptive course is the problem of 
the high school. Because of failure there, too often we see 
at many a university courses in subfreshman physics. These 
are made necessary where entrance requirements do not 



The Teaching of Physics 



129 



demand this subject and where subsequent interest along 
related lines develops among the students a tardy neces- 
sity of getting it. From the point of view of the collegiate 
course it often appears as if the subfreshman course could 
be raised to academic rank. This is because familiarity 
with the material must precede an analysis of it. Credit for 
high school physics on the records of the entrance examiner, 
unless this credit is based on entrance examination, is 
often found to stand for very little. Consequently the 
almost continual demand for the high school work under 
the direct supervision of a collegiate faculty. The number 
of students who should go into this course instead of the 
college course is increasing at the present time in the im- 
mediate locality of the writer. 

As contributory testimony here, witness the number of 
colleges that do not take cognizance at all of high school 
preparation and admit to the same college classes those 
who have never had preparatory physics with those who 
have had it. We are told the difference between the two 
groups is insignificant. Perhaps it is. If so, this fact re- 
flects as much on the college as on the high school. If we 
are looking for a solution of our problem in this direction, 
let us be undeceived; we are looking backwards, not for- 
ward. 

No one will affirm that to a class of whose numbers 
some have never had high school physics a course that is 
really analytical can be given. Wherever a rigorous an- 
alytic course is given those who have been well trained 
in descriptive physics do well in it in general. Let us not 
beg the question by giving such physics in a college that 
does not require high school preparation. The college cur- 
riculum is full enough as it is without duplication of high 
school work, and any college physics course that is a first 
course is essentially a high school course. 

Let us rather put the responsibility squarely where it 
lies. The high school will respond if the urgency is 
made clear. Witness some of them in our cities already 
attempting the junior college idea, an idea that has not 



The course 
in college 
physics dif- 
ferentiated 
from the 
high school 
course 



Need of 
adequate 
high school 
preparation 
in physics 



130 



College Teaching 



Preparatory 
work in 
mathematics 
essential foi 
success in 
college 
physics 



Need of test- 
ing each 
student's 
preparation 



been unsuccessful in some of our private schools. If it 
is made clear that a thoroughgoing course in descriptive 
physics is a paramount necessity in college work and that 
no effort will be spared on the part of the university to 
insure this quality, the men will be found and the proper 
courses given. 

We favor a comprehensive examination plan in all 
cases where the quality of the high school work is either 
unknown or open to question. 

Familiarity, likewise, with the most elementary uses of 
mathematics should be insured. It would be highly de- 
sirable that a course of collegiate grade in trigonometry 
should immediately precede the physics. This is not be- 
cause the details of trigonometry are all needed in physics. 
In fact, a few who have never had trigonometry make a 
conspicuous success in physics. These, however, are ones 
who have a natural facility in analysis. To keep them out 
because of failure to have had a prerequisite course in 
trigonometry often works an unnecessary hardship. We 
would argue, therefore, for a formal prerequisite on this 
subject, reserving for certain students exemption, which 
should be determined in all cases, if not by the instructor 
himself, at least by his cooperation with some advisory 
administrative officer. 

Nor is it sufficient with regard to the mathematical prepa- 
ration or the knowledge of high school physics in either 
case to go exclusively by the official credit record of the 
student. It is our firm conviction from several , years' ex- 
perience where widely different aims in the student body 
are represented that above and beyond all formal records 
attention to the individual case is of prime importance. 
The opening week of the course should be so conducted 
that those who are obviously unequipped can be located 
and directed elsewhere into the proper work. How this 
may best be accomplished can be determined only by the 
circumstances in the individual school, we imagine. Daily 
tests covering the simplest descriptive information that 
should be retained from high school physics and requiring 



The Teaching of Physics 131 

the intelligent use of arithmetic, elementary algebra, and 
geometry will reveal amazing incapacity in these things. 
Tuttle, in his little book entitled An Introduction to Labora- 
tory Physics (Jefferson Laboratory of Physics, Philadel- 
phia, 1915), gives on pages 15-16 an excellent list of 
questions of this sort. Any one with teaching experience 
in the subject whatever can make up an equally good one 
suited for his special needs and temperament. It should 
not be assumed that all who fail in such tests should be 
dropped. Some undoubtedly should be sent back to high 
school work or its equivalent; others may need double the 
required work in mathematics to overcome their unreadi- 
ness in its use. Personal contacts will show that some are 
drifting into a scientific course who have no aptitude for 
it and who will be doomed to disappointment should they 
continue. In a word, then, we are convinced that the 
more carefully one plans the work of the first week or so 
the more smoothly does the work of the rest of the year 
follow. The number of failures may be reduced to a few 
per cent without in any way relaxing the standard of the 
course. 

With regard to the organization of the college courses Methods of 
in physics there seems to us to be at least one method that coUege 
leads to a considerable degree of success. This is not P^^ysics 
the lecture method of instruction; neither is it a wholly 
unmitigated laboratory method. 

To kindle inspiration and enthusiasm nothing can equal Lecture 
the contact in lectures with others, preferably leaders in laboratory 
their profession, but ^t least men who possess one of these method 
qualities. Such contacts need not be frequent; indeed, they 
should not be. The speaker is apt to make more effort, 
the student to be more responsive, if such occasions are 
relatively rare. Even thus, although real information is 
imparted at such a time, it is seldom acquired. However, 
perspective is furnished, interest stimulated, and the occa- 
sion enjoyed. 

For the real acquisition of scientific information, the 
great method is the working out of a laboratory exercise 



132 



College Teaching 



Limitations 
of exclusive 
use of eacli 
method 



Aims of the 

laboratory 

method 



Value of the 
supplemen- 
tary lecture 



and pertinent problems, with informal guidance in the at- 
mosphere of active study and discussion engendered among 
a small group, — the laboratory method. Taken alone, it 
is apt to become mechanical and uninteresting and the out- 
look to be obscured by details. Lectures, especially demon- 
stration lectures, are needed to vitalize and inspire. More- 
over, many of the most vivid illustrations of physical prin- 
ciples that occur on every hand to focus the popular atten- 
tion are never met with in the college course because they 
are unsuited for inexperienced hands or not readily amena- 
ble to quantitative experimentation. The more informally 
such demonstrations can be conducted, the more enthusi- 
astically they are received. 

With regard to laboratory work, accuracy in moderate 
degree is important, but too great insistence upon it is 
apt to overshadow the higher aim; namely, that of the 
analysis of the phenomena themselves. A determination 
of the pressure coefficient of a gas to half a per cent, accom- 
panied by a clear visualization of the mechanism by which 
a gas exerts a pressure and a usable identification of 
temperature with kinetic agitation, would seem preferable 
to an experimental error of a tenth per cent which may be 
exacted which is unaccompanied by these inspiring and 
rather modern points of view. Especially in electricity 
is a familiarity with the essentials of the modern theories 
important. Here supplementary lectures are of great neces- 
sity, for no textbook keeps pace with progress in this tre- 
mendously important field. Problem solving with class 
discussion is absolutely essential, and should occupy at least 
one third of the entire time. In no other way can one be 
convinced that the student is doing anything more than com- 
mitting to memory, or blindly following directions with no 
reaction of his own. 

The incorporation recently of this idea into the courses 
at the University of Chicago has been very successful. 
Five sections which are under different instructors are com- 
bined one day a week at an hour when there are no other 
university engagements, for a lecture demonstration. This 



The Teaching of Physics 133 



is given by a senior member of the staff whenever possible. 
The other meetings during the week are conducted by the 
individual instructors and consist of two two-hour labo- 
ratory periods and two class periods that usually run into 
somewhat over one hour each. These sections are limited 
to twenty-five, and a smaller number than this would be 
desirable. The responsibility for the course rests natur- 
ally upon the individual instructors of these small sections. 
These men also share in the demonstration work, since 
each is usually an enthusiast in some particular field and 
will make a great effort in his own specialty to give a suc- 
cessful popular presentation of the important ideas involved. 
The enthusiasm which this plan has engendered is very 
great. Attendance is crowded and there is always a row 
of visitors, teachers of the vicinity, advanced students m 
other fields of work, or undergraduates brought m by 
members of the class. These latter especially are encour- 
aged, as this does much to offset current ideas that physics 
is a subject of unmitigated severity. The particular topics 
put into these demonstrations will be discussed in para- 
graphs below, which take up in more detail the organization 
of the special subdivisions of the material in a general 

physics course. lur v. • 

Mechanics is a stumbling block at the outset. As we have Mec^^ani^ a 
indicated above, it must form the beginning of any course woc^k- 
that is analytic in aim. There is no question of sidestep- ^^^^^^,^ 
ping the difficulty: it must be surmounted. A judicious difficulty 
weeding during the first week is the initial part of the plan. 
Interest may be aroused at once in the demonstration lec- 
tures by mechanical tricks that show apparent violations 
of Newton's Laws. These group around the type ot ex- 
periment which shows a modification of the natural unilorm 
rectilinear motion of any object by some hidden force, most 
often a concealed magnetic field. The instinctive adhe- 
rence of every one to Newton's dynamic definition that 
acceleration defies the ratio of force to inertia, is made ob- 
vious by the amusement with which a trick in apparent 
defiance of this principle is greeted. Informality of dis- 



134 College Teaching 

cussion in such experiments, questions on the part of the 
instructor that are more than rhetorical, and volunteer 
answers and comment from the class increase the vividness 
of the impressions. A mechanical adaptation of the " mon- 
key on the string " problem, using little electric hoists 
or clockworks, introduces interesting discussion of the third 
law in conjunction with the second. A toy cannon and 
target mounted on easily rolling carriages bring in the 
similar ideas where impulses rather than forces alone can 
be measured. 

There follow, then, the laboratory experiments of the 
Atwood machine and the force table, where quantitative 
results are demanded. It is desirable to have these experi- 
ments at least worked by the class in unison. Whatever 
may be th-e exigencies of numbers and apparatus equipment 
that prevent it later, these introductions should be given to 
and discussed by all together. In the nature of things, 
fortunately, this is possible. A single Atwood machine 
will give traces for all in a short time under the guidance 
of the instructor. The force table experiment is nine- 
tenths calculation, and verifications may be made for a 
large number in a short time. Searching problems and 
discussion are instigated at once, and the notion of rota- 
tional equilibrium and force moments brought in. Because 
of the very great difficulty seeming to attach to force reso- 
lutions, demonstration experiments and problems using a 
bridge structure, such as the Harvard experimental truss, 
will amply repay the time invested. Another experiment 
here, which makes analysis of the practice of weighing, is 
possible, although there will be divergence almost at once 
due to the personality of the instructor and the equipment 
by which he finds himself limited. The early introduc- 
tion of moments is important, however, because it seems 
as if a great amount of unnecessary confusion on this topic 
is continually cropping out later. At this point, if limita- 
tions of apparatus present a difficulty, a group of more or 
less independent experiments may be started. Ideas of 
energy may be illustrated in the determination of the 



The Teaching of Physics 135 

efficiency and the horse power of simple machines, such as 
water motors, pulleys, and even small gas or steam engines. 

In discussion of power one should not forget that in 
practical problems one meets power as force times velocity 
rather more frequently than as rate of doing work, and this 
aspect should be emphasized in the experiments. Conser- 
vation of energy is brought out in these same experiments 
with reference to the efficiencies involved. In sharp con- 
trast here the principle of conservation of momentum may 
be brought in by ballistic pendulum experiments involving 
elastic and inelastic impacts. Most students are unfamiliar 
with the application of these ideas to the determination of 
projectile velocities, and this forms an interesting lecture 
demonstration. Elasticity likewise is a topic that may be 
introduced with more or less emphasis according to the 
predilection of the instructor. The moduli of Young and 
of simple rigidity lend themselves readily to quantitative 
laboratory experiments. Any amount of interesting ma- 
terial may be culled here from recent investigations of 
Michelson, Bridgman, and others with regard to elastic 
limits, departures from the simple relations, variations with 
pressure, etc., for a lantern or demonstration talk in these 
connections. 

By this time the student should have found himself suf- 
ficiently prepared to take up problems of rotational motion. 
The application of Newton's Laws to pure rotations and 
combinations of rotation and translation, such as rolling 
motions, are very many. We would emphasize here the 
dynamic definition of moment of inertia, I = Fh/ a rather 
than the one so frequently given importance for computa- 
tional purposes, %mr". Quantitative experiments are fur- 
nished by the rotational counterpart of the Atwood ma- 
chine. Lecture demonstrations for several talks abound: 
stability of spin about the axis of greatest inertia, Kelvin's 
famous experiments with eggs and tops containing liquids, 
which suggest the gyroscopic ideas, and finally a discus- 
sion of gyroscopes and their multitudinous applications. 
The book of Crabtree, Spinning Tops and the Gyroscope, 



136 



College Teaching 



Suggested 
content for 
the study of 
phenomena 
of heat and 
molecular 
physics 



and the several papers by Gray in the Proceedings of the 
Physical Society of London, summarize a wealth of ma- 
terial. If one wishes to interject a parenthetical discus- 
sion of the Bernouilli principle, and the simplest laws of 
pressure distributions on plane surfaces moving through a 
resisting medium, a group of striking demonstrations is pos- 
sible involving this notion, and by simple combination of it 
with the precession of a rotating body the boomerang may 
be brought in and its action for the major part given ex- 
planation. 

Rotational motion leads naturally to a discussion of 
centripetal force, and this in turn is simple harmonic mo- 
tion. This latter finds most important applications in the 
pendulum experiments, and no end of material is here to 
be found in any of the textbooks. The greatest refinement 
of experimentation for elementary purposes will be the 
determination of " g *' by the method of coincidences be- 
tween a simple pendulum and the standard clock. Ele- 
mentary analysis without use of calculus reaches its cul- 
mination in a discussion of forced vibrations similar to 
that used by Magie in his general text. Many will not care 
to go as far as this. Others will go farther and discuss 
Kater's pendulum and the small corrections needed for 
precision, for here does precision find bold expression. 

It is not our purpose to give a synopsis of the entire 
general physics course. We have made an especially de- 
tailed study of mechanics, because this topic is the one 
of greatest difficulty by far in the pedagogy. It is too 
formally given in the average text, and seems to have 
suffered rnost of all from lack of imagination on the part 
of instructors. 

In the field of heat and molecular physics in general 
there is much better textbook material. Experiments here 
may legitimately be called precise, for the gas laws, tem- 
perature coefficients, and densities of gases and saturated 
vapor pressures will readily yield in comparatively inex- 
perienced hands an accuracy of about one in a thousand. 
In the demonstrations emphasis should be given to the 



The Teaching of Physics 



137 



visualization of the kinetic theory points of view. Such 
models as the Northrup visible molecule apparatus are very 
helpful. However, in absence of funds for such elabora- 
tion, slides from imaginative drawings showing to scale con- 
ditions in solids, liquids, and vapors with average free paths 
indicated and the history of single molecules depicted will 
be found ideal in getting the visualization home to the 
student. Where we have a theory so completely established 
as the mechanical theory of heat it seems quite fair to have 
recourse to the eye of the senses to aid the eye of the mind. 
Brownian movements have already yielded up their dances 
to the motion picture camera. Need the " movies " be the 
only ones to profit by the animated cartoon? 

Nor should the classical material be forgotten. Boys' 
experiments in soap bubbles have been the inspiration of 
generations of students of capillarity. And if the physicist 
will consult with the physiological chemist he will find a 
mass of material of which he never dreamed where these 
phenomena of surface tension enter in a most direct fashion 
to leading questions in the life sciences. 

Enough has been said to indicate what we consider the The teacher 
methods of successful teaching of college physics. It is 
quite obvious, we think, that physics constitutes no excep- 
tion to the rule that the teacher must first of all know and 
understand his subject. Right here lies probably nine 
tenths of the fault with our pedagogy. No amount of study 
of method will yield such returns as the study of the subject 
itself. The honest student, and every teacher should be- 
long to this class or he has no claim to the name, is well 
aware that most of his deficiency in explaining a topic 
is in direct ratio to his own lack of comprehension of it. 
In physics, as in every other walk of life, we suffer from 
lack of thoroughness, from a kind of superficiality that is 
characteristically human but especially American. We 
have yet to know of any one who really ranks as a scholar 
in his subject from whom students do not derive inspiration 
and enthusiasm. Such a one usually pays little attention 
to the methods of others, for the divine fire of knowl- 



of scholar- 
ship and 
understand- 
ing is the 
teacher who 
uses sound 
methods 



138 



College Teaching 



The method 
of analysis 
dominant 
in physics 



edge itself does not need much of tinder to kindle 
the torches of others. Our greatest plea is for our teachers 
to be men of understanding, for then they will be found to 
be men of method. 

The sequence in which heat, electricity, sound, and light 
follow mechanics seems quite immaterial. Several equally 
logical plans may be organized. Preference is usually 
accorded one or the other on the basis of local conditions 
of equipment, and needs little reference to pedagogy. If 
one gives to mechanics its proper importance, the difficulty 
in giving instruction in the other topics seems very much 
less. The momentum acquired seems to serve for the bal- 
ance of the year. Always must analysis be insisted upon, 
if our college course is going to differ from that of the 
high school. If we are to let students be content to read 
current from an ammeter with a calibrated scale and not 
have the interest to inquire and the ambition to insist upon 
the knowledge of how that calibration was originally made, 
we have no right to claim any collegiate rank for our courses. 
But if we define electrical current in terms of mechanical 
force which exhibits a balanced couple on a system in 
rotational equilibrium, there can be no dodging of the issue, 
for in no other way than by the study of the mechanics 
of the situation can the content and the limitations of our 
definition be understood. Any college work, so called, that 
does less than analyze thus is nothing more than a review 
and amplification of the material that should be within the 
range of the high school student and in that place presented 
to him. The first college course reveals a different method, 
the method of analysis. Science at the present time is so 
far developed that in no branch is progress made by mere 
description and classification. The method of analysis is 
dominant in the biological and the earth sciences as well 
as in the physics and chemistry of today. . 

On the more advanced college courses which follow the 
general physics course little comment is needed. Problems 
and questions here also exist, but they have a strongly local 
color and are out of place in a general discussion. The 



The Teaching of Physics 



139 



student body is no longer composed of the rank and file, Teaching 



of advanced 
courses in 
physics 



half of whom are driven, by some requirement or other, 
into work in which they have but a passing interest at 
best. It is no longer a problem of seeing how much can 
be made to adhere in spite of indifference, of how firm a 
foundation can be prepared for needs as yet unrecognized 
in the subject of the effort. A very limited number, com- 
paratively, enter further work of senior college courses, 
and these have either enthusiasm or ability and often both. 
Of course, a cold neglect or bored indifference in the atti- 
tude of the teacher will be resented. It will kill enthusiasm 
and send ability seeking inspiration elsewhere. But any 
one who is fond of his subject, and of moderate ability 
and industry, should have no difficulty in developing senior 
college work. If our instructor in the general course must 
be a scholar to be successful, the man in more advanced 
work must be one a fortiori. If he is not, few who come in 
contact with him have so little discernment as to fail to 
recognize the fact. 

Organization of senior college work may be in many Orgamza- 
ways. One method where an institution follows the quarter advanced 
system is the plan of having eight or ten different and courses 
rather unrelated twelve-week major courses which may be 
taken in almost any order. Half of these are lecture 
courses, the other half exclusively laboratory courses. 
There should be a correspondence of material to some ex- 
tent between the two. Lectures on the kinetic theory of 
gases should have a parallel course in which the classical 
experiments of the senior heat laboratory are performed,^ 
such experiments, for example, as vapor density, resistance 
and thermocouple pyrometry, bomb calorimetry viscosity, 
molecular conductivity, freezing and boiling points, recal- 
escence, etc. A course of advanced electrical measurements 
should have a parallel lecture course in which tlie theoreti- 
cal aspects of electromagnetism, the classical theories, and 
the equations that represent transitory and equilibrium con- 
ditions in complex circuits are discussed. In optics, like- 
wise, there is ample material of great importance: physical, 



140 



College Teaching 



Dangers of 
formalizing 
methods of 
instruction 



geometrical optics, spectroscopy, photography, X-ray crys- 
tallography, etc. The advanced student in these fields finds 
more elasticity and opportunity for cultivating a special in- 
terest in having a large number of limited interest courses 
from which to choose than in having such material presented 
in a completely organized course covering one or two years 
of complete work. Instructors who are specialists have op- 
portunity of working up courses in their own fields which 
they do more efficiently under this plan. Research begins at 
innumerable places along the way, and the senior college 
courses so organized are the feeders of all graduate work. 

In all of the above discussion it should be clearly re- 
membered that no single plan or no one particular method 
has the final word or ever will have. As long as a science 
is growing and unfinished, points of view will continually 
be shifting. We are largely orthodox in our teaching. If 
brought up on the laboratory method of instruction it may 
seem the best one for us, but others may prefer another way 
which they have inherited. Let us appeal, then, for a con- 
structive orthodoxy. Let us be as teachers of a subject to 
which we are devoted, truly and sincerely open-minded, 
quick to recognize and sincere in our efforts to adopt what 
is better wherever we meet it: waiting not to meet it, 
either, but going out to seek it. From the humblest college 
to the greatest university we shall find it here and there. 
Not alone in schools but in the legion of human activities 
about us on every hand are people who are doing things 
more efficiently, more thoroughly, and more skillfully than 
we do things. If we would be of the number that lead, we 
must be among the first to recognize these facts and profit 
by them. 

First, let our work be organized with respect to that of 
others — the high schools; not discounting their labor but 
having them truly build for us. 

Second, let us be open-minded enough to see that all 
methods of instruction have their advantages and make 
such combinations of the best elements in each as best suit 



our purpose. 



The Teaching of Physics 141 

Above all things, let us know our subject. Here is a task 
before which we quail in this generation of vast vistas. But 
there is no alternative for us. No amount of method will 
remove the curse of the superficially informed. Let us de- 
vote ourselves to smaller fields if we must, but let us not 
tolerate ignorance among those who bear the burden of 
passing on, with its flame ever more consuming, the torch 
of knowledge. 

Harvey B. Lemon 

University of Chicago 



VII 
THE TEACHING OF GEOLOGY 



Values of 
the study of 
geology 
diverse 



Geology a 
study of the 
process of 
evolution 



SO wide is the scope of the science of the earth, so varied 
is its subject matter, and so diverse are the mental 
activities called forth in its pursuit, that its function in col- 
legiate training cannot be summed up in an introductory 
phrase or two. Geology is so composite that it is better 
fitted to serve a related group of educational purposes than 
a single one alone. Besides this, these possible services 
have not yet become so familiar that they can be brought 
vividly to mind by an apt word or phrase; they need elabo- 
ration and exposition to be valued at what they are really 
worth. Geology is yet a young science and still growing, 
and as in the case of a growing boy, to know what it was a 
few years ago is not to know what it is today. Its dis- 
ciplines take on a realistic phase in the main, but yet in 
some aspects appeal powerfully to the imagination. Its 
subject matter forms a constitutional history of our planet 
and its inhabitants, but yet largely wears a descriptive or a 
dynamic garb. 

Though basally historical, a large part of the literature 
of geology is concerned with the description of rocks, struc- 
tural features, geologic terrains, surface configurations and 
their modes of formation and means of identification. A 
notable part of the text prepared for college students re- 
lates primarily to phenomena and processes, leaving the 
history of the earth to follow later in a seemingly secondary 
way. This has its defense in a desire first to make clear 
the modes of the geologic processes, to the end that the 
parts played by these processes in the complexities of ac- 
tions that make up the historical stages may be better real- 
ized. This has the effect, however, of giving the impres- 
sion that geology is primarily a study of rocks and rock- 
forming processes, and this impression is confirmed by the 
great mass of descriptive literature that has sprung almost 

142 



The Teaching of Geology 



143 



necessarily from the task of delineating such a multitude of 
formations before trying to interpret their modes of origin 
or to assign them their places in the history of the earth. 
The descriptive details are the indispensable data of a sound 
history, and they have in addition specific values inde- 
pendent of their service as historical data. But into the 
multiplicity and complexity of the details of structure and 
of process, the average college student can wisely enter to 
a limited extent only, except as they form types, or appear 
in the local fields which he studies, where they serve as con- 
crete examples of world-forming processes. 

The study of these structures, formations, configurations, 
and processes yields each its own special phase of disci- 
pline and its own measure of information. The work takes 
on various chemical, mechanical, and biological aspects. 
As a means of discipline it calls for keenness and diligence 
in observation, circumspection in inference, a judicial bal- 
ancing of factors in interpretation. An active use of the 
scientific imagination is called forth in following forma- 
tions to inaccessible depths or beneath areas where they are 
concealed from view. 

While thus the study of structures, formations and con- 
figurations constitutes the most obtrusive phase of geo- 
logic study and has given trend to pedagogical opinion 
respecting its place in a college course, such study is not, 
in the opinion of the writer, the foremost function of the 
subject in a college curriculum that is designed to be really 
broad, basal, and free, in contradistinction to one that is 
tied to a specific vocational purpose. 

While we recognize, with full sympathy, that the subject 
matter of geology enters vitally into certain vocational and 
prevocational courses, and, in such relations, calls for 
special selections of material and an appropriate handling, 
if it is to fulfill these purposes effectively, this seems to 
us aside from the purpose of this discussion, which centers 
on typical college training — training which is liberal in 
the cosmic sense, not merely from the homocentric point 
of view. 



Disciplinary 
worth of 
study of 
geology 



This study 
concerned 
primarily 
with the 
typical col- 
lege course, 
not with vo- 
cational 
courses 



144 



College Teaching 



Knowledge 
of geology 
contributes 
to a truly 
liberal edu- 
cation 



Geology 
embraces 
all the 
great evo- 
lutions 



To subserve these broader purposes, geology is to be 
studied comprehensively as the evolution of the earth and 
its inhabitants. The earth in itself is to be regarded as 
an organism and as the foster-parent of a great series of 
organisms that sprang into being and pursued their careers 
in the contact zones between its rigid body and its fluidal 
envelopes. These contact zones are, in a special sense, 
the province of geography in both its physical and its biotic 
aspects. The evolution of the biotic and the psychic worlds 
in these horizons is an essential part of the history of the 
whole, for each factor has reacted powerfully on the others. 
An appreciative grasp of these great evolutions, and of their 
relations to one another, is essential to a really broad view 
of the world of which we are a part; it is scarcely less 
than an essential factor in a modern liberal education. 

Let us agree, then, at the outset, that a true study of 
the career of the earth is not adequately compassed by a 
mere tracing of its inorganic history or an elucidation 
of its physical structure and mineral content, but that it 
embraces as well all the great evolutions fostered within 
the earth's mantles in the course of its career. 

Greatest among these fostered evolutions, from the homo- 
centric point of view, are the living, the sentient, and the 
thinking kingdoms that have grown up with the later phases 
of the physical evolution. It does not militate against 
this view that each of these kingdoms is, in itself, the 
subject of special sciences, and that these, in turn, envelop 
a multitude of sub-sciences, for that is true of every com- 
prehensive unit. Nor is it inconsistent with this larger view 
of the scope of geology that it is, itself, often given a 
much narrower definition, as already implied. In its 
broader sense, geology is an enveloping science, surveying, 
in a broad historical way, many subjects that call for in- 
tensive study under more special sciences, just as human 
history sweeps comprehensively over a broad field culti- 
vated more intensively by special humanistic sciences. In 
a comprehensive study of the earth as an organism, it is 
essential that there be embraced a sufl&cient consideration 



The Teaching of Geology 145 



of all the vital factors that entered into its history to give 
these their due place and their true value among the 
agencies that contributed to its evolution. A true 
biography of the earth can no more be regarded as com- 
plete without the biotic and psychic elements that sprang 
forth from it, or were fostered within its mantles, than can 
the biography of a human being be complete with a mere 
sketch of his physical frame and bodily growth. The 
physical and biological evolutions are well recognized as 
essential parts of earth history. Although the mental evo- 
lutions have emerged gradually with the biological evolu- 
tions, and have run more or less nearly parallel with them 
— have, indeed, been a working part of them — they have 
been less fully and frankly recognized as elements of 
geological history. They have been rather scantily treated 
in the literature of the subject; but they are, none the 
less, a vital part of the great history. They have found 
some recognition, though much too meager, in the more 
comprehensive and philosophical treatises on earth-science. 
It may be safely prophesied that the later and higher evo- 
lutions that grace our planet will be more adequately 
emphasized as the science grows into its full maturity and 
comes into its true place among the sciences. It is im- 
portant to emphasize this here, since it is preeminently the 
function of a liberal college course to give precedence to 
the comprehensive and the essential, both in its selection of 
its subject matter and in its treatment of what it selects. 
It is the function of a liberal course of study to bring that 
which is broad and basal and vital into relief, and to set 
it over against that which is limited, special, and technical, 
however valuable the latter may be in vocational training 
and in economic application. 

In view of these considerations — and frankly recogniz- 
ing the inadequacies of current treatment — let us note, be- 
fore we go further, what are the physical and dynamic 
boundaries of the geologic field, that we may the better 
see how that field merges into the domains of other 
sciences. This will the better prepare us to realize the 



146 



College Teaching 



Physical nature of the disciplines for which earth-science forms a 

and dynamic suitable basis, as well as the types of intellectual furniture 
boundaries ' i /^i ^ ^ i • i • i i • 

of geology it yields to the mind. Obviously these disciplines and this 

tionrX^r*'^' substance of thought should determine the place of the 

teaching science in the curriculum of any course that assumes the 

task of giving a broad and liberal education. 

Earth-science is the domestic chapter of celestial science. 
Our planet is but a modest unit among the great celestial 
assemblage of worlds; but, modest as it is, it is that unit 
about which we have by far the fullest and most reliable 
knowledge. The earth not only furnishes the physical base- 
line of celestial observation, but supplies all the appliances 
by which inquiry penetrates the depths of the heavens. 
Not alone earth-science, as such, but several of the inten- 
sive sciences brought into being through the intellectual 
evolutions that have attended the later history of the earth, 
have been prerequisites to the development of the broad 
science of the outer heavens. The science of the lower 
heavens is a factor of earth-science in the definition we 
are just about to give. At tKe same time, the whole earth, 
including the lower heavens, is enveloped by the more com- 
prehensive domain of celestial science. 

If we seek the most logical limit that may be assigned the 
realm of earth-science, as distinguished from that of 
celestial science, of which it is the home unit, it may be 
found at that borderline within which any passive body 
obeys the call of the earth, as against the call of all the 
outer worlds, and without which such a passive body obeys 
the call of the outer worlds, the call of the sun in particu- 
lar. This limit is the dynamic dividing line between the 
kingdom of the earth and the kingdom of the outer heavens. 
This boundary, according to Moulton, incloses a spheroid 
whose minimum radius is about 620,000 miles, and whose 
maximum radius is about 930,000 miles. We may, then, 
conveniently say that the earth's sphere of control stretches 
out a million kilometers from its center and that this de- 
fines its true realm. At the same time, this defines the 
logical limit of the earth's ultra-atmosphere and appears 



The Teaching of Geology 147 

to mark a zone of exchange between the ultra-atmosphere 
of the earth and the ultra-atmosphere of the sun. It thus 
appears to imply the place and the mode of an exchange 
of vital elements upon which probably hangs the wonder- 
ful maintenance of the earth's atmosphere for many 
millions of years and the equally wonderful regulation of 
the essential qualities of the atmosphere so that these have 
always remained within the narrow range subservient to 
terrestrial life. It is needless to add that this regulation 
also conditions the present intellectual status of the think- 
ing factor among the inhabitants of the earth out of which 
— may I be pardoned for saying? — has grown the present 
educational discussion. 

If this last shall seem to squint toward special pleading, 
let it be considered that, as we see things, it is precisely 
those views that take hold of the issues upon which our very 
being and all its activities depend, that serve best to train 
youth to broad views and penetrating thought. Such think- 
ing seems to me to form the very essence of a really liberal 
education. 

Not only is this definition of the sphere of geology com- 
prehensive, but it has the special merit of being dynamic, 
rather than material. Such a dynamic definition comports 
with the view that earth-study should center on the forces 
and energies that actuated its evolution, since these are the 
most vital feature of the evolution itself. It is important 
to form adequate concepts of the energies that have main- 
tained the past ongoings of the earth not only, but that still 
maintain its present activities and predetermine its future. 
It is the study of the forces and the processes of past and 
of present evolutions that constitute the soul of the science, 
rather than the apparently fixed and passive aspects of the 
earth's formations and configurations which are but the 
products of the processes that have gone before. Even the 
apparent passiveness of the geologic products is illusive, 
for they are in reality expressions of continued internal 
activities of an intense, though occult, order. These escape 
notice largely because they are balanced against one another 



148 



College Teaching 



in a system of equilibrium which pervades them and gives 
them the appearance of fixity. To serve their proper func- 
tions as sources of higher education, the concepts of the 
constitution of the earth should penetrate even to these 
refined aspects of physical organization and should bring 
the whole into harmony with the most advanced views of the 
real nature of physical organisms. This removes from the 
whole terrestrial organism every similitude of inertness and 
gives it a fundamental refinement, activity, and potency 
of the highest order. To form a true and consistent con- 
cept, the enveloping earth-science must be assumed to em- 
brace, potentially at least, the essentials of all that was 
evolved within it and from it, with, of course, due recogni- 
tion of what was added from without. 

The history of the earth should therefore be taught in 
college courses as a succession of complex dynamic events, 
great in the past and great in future potentialities. 

The formations and configurations left by the successive 
phases of action are to be studied primarily as the vestiges 
of the processes that gave them birth, and hence as their 
historic credentials. They are to be looked upon less as 
the vital things in themselves, than as the record of the 
events of the time and as the forerunners of the subsequent 
events that may be potential in them. And so, primarily, 
the geologic records are to be scrutinized to find the deeper 
meanings which they embody, whether such meanings lie 
in the physical, the biological, or the psychological world, 
meanfo/^^ Turning to specific phases of the subject, it may first 
developing be noted that geology is singularly suited to develop clear 
imagination visions of vast Stretches of time; it opens broad visions 
of the panorama of world events, a panorama still passing 
before us. While the celestial order of things no doubt 
involves greater lapses of time, these are not so easily 
realized, for they are not so well filled in with a succession 
of records of the passing stages that make up the whole. 
But even the lapses of geologic time are greater than im- 
mature minds can readily grasp; however, their powers of 
realization are greatly strengthened by studying so pro- 



of time 
and space 



The Teaching of Geology 149 



traded a record, built up stage upon stage. The very slow- 
ness with which the geologic record was made, as well as 
the evidences of slowness in each part of the record, help 
to draw out an appreciation of the immensity of the whole. 
The round period covered by the more legible range of the 
geologic record rises to the order of a hundred million 
years, perhaps to several hundred million years. The large 
view of history which this implies has already come to 
form the ample background on which are projected the 
concepts of the broader class of thinkers; such largeness 
of view will quite surely be held to be an indispensable 
prerequisite to the still broader thinking of the future for 
which the better order of students are now preparing. 

While this is preeminently true of the concept of time, 
the concept of space is fairly well cultivated by geologic 
study, though far less effectively than is done by astronomi- 
cal study. Astronomy and geology work happily together 
in contributing to largeness of thought. 

The study of the origin and early history of the earth 
brings the student into touch with the most far-reaching 
problems that have thus far called forth the intellectual 
efforts of man. If rightly handled, these great themes may 
be made to teach the true method of inquiry into past 
natural events whose vastness puts them quite beyond the 
resources of the laboratory. This method finds its key in 
a search for the history of such vast and remote events by 
a scrutiny of the vestiges these events have left as their 
own automatic record. This method stands in sharp con- 
tradistinction to simple speculation without such search for 
talismanic vestiges, a discredited method which is too often 
supposed to be the only way of dealing with such themes. 
To be really competent in the field of larger and deeper 
thinking, every courageous mind should be able to cross 
the threshold of any of the profound problems of the uni- 
verse with safe and circumspect steps, however certain it 
may be that only a slight measure of penetration of the 
problem may be attainable. A well-ordered mind will re- 
main at once complacent and wholesome when brought to 



150 



College Teaching 



Geology a 
means of 
training in 
thinking in 
scientific 
experiences 



the limit of its effort by the limit of evidence. The prob- 
lem of the origin of celestial worlds, of which the genesis 
of the earth is the theme of largest human interest, is 
admirably suited to give college students at once a modest 
sense of their limitations and a wholesome attitude toward 
problems of the vaster type. Without having acquired the 
power to make prudent and duly controlled excursions into 
the vaster fields of thought, the mind can scarcely he said 
to have been liberalized. 

From the very outset, the tracing of the earth history 
forces a comprehensive study of the co-workings of the three 
dominant states of matter massively embodied in the 
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere, the great 
terrestrial triumvirate. The strata of the earth are the joint 
products of these three elements and constitute their litho- 
graphic record. These three cooperating and contending 
elements not only bring into view the three typical phases 
of physical action, but they present this action in such 
titanic aspects as to force the young mind to think along 
large lines, with the great advantage that these actions are 
controlled by determinate laws, while the causes and the 
results are both tangible and impressive. 

While there is a large class of tangible and determinate 
problems of this kind, embracing shiftings of matter on the 
earth's surface, distortions of strata, and changes of bodily 
form, there are also problems of a more hidden nature 
such as internal mutations. These give rise to mathemati- 
cal, physical, and chemical inquiries while at the same time 
they call into play the use of the scientific imagination and 
are thus rich in the possibilities of training. Thus in varied 
ways geological work joins hands with chemical, physical, 
mechanical, and mathematical work. 

When life first appears in the record, there is occasion to 
raise the profound question of its origin, and with this arises 
a closely related question as to the nature of the condi- 
tions that invited life, which leads on to the further ques- 
tion, what fostered the development of life throughout its 
long history? While the obscurity of the earliest record 



The Teaching of Geology 151 



leaves the question of origin indeterminate for the present, 
duly guarded thought upon the subject should foster a 
wholesome spirit toward inquiry in this vital line as well 
as a hospitable attitude toward whatever solution may 
finally await us. In all such studies the student should be 
invited to look to the vestiges left automatically by the 
process itself for the answer, and he should learn to accept 
the teachings of evidence precisely as it presents itself. 
So also when a problem is, for the present, indeterminate, 
it is peculiarly wholesome for the inquirer to learn to rest 
the case where the light of evidence fails, and to be com- 
placent in such suspension of judgment and to wait further 
light patiently in serene confidence that the vestiges left 
by the actuating agencies in their constructive processes 
are the surest index of the ultimate truth and are likely 
to be sooner or later detected and read truly. 

In the successive records of past life impressed on strata ^goio^^V^ 
piled one upon another until they form the great paleonto- botany, 
logic register, there is an ample and a solid basis for the psyc^ifo^ogy 
study of the historic evolution of life. With this also ffo and. socioi- 
evidences of the conditions that attended this life progress 
and that gave trend to it. This record of the relations of 
life to the environing physical conditions forms one of the 
most stimulating fields of study that can engage the student 
who seeks light on the great problems of biological progress. 
Here geology joins hands with botany and zoology in a 
mutual helpfulness that is scarcely less than indispensable 
to each. 

Following, or perhaps immediately attending, the intro- 
duction of physiological life, there appeared signs of senti- 
ent life. The preservation of certain of the sense organs, 
taken together with the collateral evidences of sense action, 
as early as Cambrian times, furnish the groundwork for a 
historical study of the progress of sentient life, eventuating 
in the higher forms of mental life. Here the problems 
of geology run hand in hand with the problems of 
psychology. The limitations of the evidence bearing on 
psychological phenomena, while regrettable, are not with- 



152 College Teaching 

out some compensation in that they center the attention 
on the simpler aspects of the protracted deployment of the 
psychological functions. 

In addition to the clear evidences of psychic action, 
in at least its elementary forms, there appeared early in 
the stratigraphic records intimations of some of the rela- 
tionships that sentient beings then bore to one another; 
and this relationship gives occasion to study the primitive 
aspects of sociological phenomena. If nothing more is 
learned than the important lesson that sociology is not a 
thing of today, not an untried realm inviting all kinds 
of ill-digested projects, but on the contrary is a field of 
vast and instructive history, the gain will not be incon- 
siderable. There are intimations of the early existence 
and effective activity of those affections that precede and 
that cluster about the parental relationship, the nucleus of 
the most vital of all the sociological relationships. In 
contrast to the affections, there are distinct evidences of 
antagonistic relations, of pursuit and capture, of attack and 
defense; there were tools of warfare and devices for pro- 
tection. In time, a wide-ranging series of experiments, so 
to speak, were tried to secure advantage, to avoid suffer- 
ing, to escape death, and to preserve the species. There 
were even suggestions of the cruder forms of government. 
The many stages in the evolution of the various devices, 
as well as the stages of their abandonment, that followed 
one another in the course of the ages recorded the results 
of a multitude of efforts at sociological adjustment. They 
raise the question whether a common set of guiding prin- 
ciples does not underlie all such relationships, earlier and 
later, whatever their rank in our scale of valuation. And 
so this great field of inquiry — too narrowly regarded 
as merely humanistic — comes into view early in the history 
of the earth. The geological and the sociological sciences 
find in it common working ground. If the geologic and 
the humanistic sciences are given each their widest interpre- 
tation and their freest application, the advantage cannot be 
other than mutual. 



The Teaching of Geology 



153 



It is perhaps not too much to say that studies in the 
physiological, the psychological, the sociological, and the 
allied fields necessarily lack completeness if they do not 
bring into their purview the data of their common historical 
record traced as far back as it is found to contain intima- 
tions of their actual extension. 

It is customary to speak of the geologic ages as though 
they were wholly past; they are, indeed, chiefly past as 
the record now stands, but time runs on and earth history 
continues; the processes of the past are still active, and 
they are likely to work on far into the future. And so 
geologic study links itself fundamentally into all such 
present terrestrial interests as take hold of the distant future. 
The forecast of the earth's endurance, attended by condi- 
tions congenial to life and to the mental and moral activi- 
ties, hinges on a sound insight into the great actuating 
forces inherent in the earth, together with those likely to 
come into play from the celestial environment. All human 
interests, in so far as they are dependent on a protracted 
future, center in the prognosis of the earth based on its 
present and its past. The latest phases of geologic doctrine 
prophesy a long future habitability of the earth. They 
thus give meaning and emphasis to the deeper purposes 
sought in all the higher endeavors, not the least of which 
is education, particularly those phases of education that 
lead to effects which may be handed down from age to age. 

Out of all this vast physical, biological, and psychological 
history, the things to be selected for substance of thought 
and for service in mental training in a college course are, 
first of all, those that are either fundamental in themselves, 
or that have vital bearings on what is fundamental. These 
are chiefly the great dynamic factors, the agencies that gave 
trend to the master events, the forces that actuated the 
basal processes by which the vast results were attained. 
The material formations and the surficial configurations 
that resulted are to be duly considered, to be sure, for they 
form the basis of interpretation and they are, besides, the 
repositories of economic values of indispensable worth; 



standard 
for select- 
ing subject 
matter for 
the general 
college 
course: 
select funda- 
mentals or 
that which 
bears on 
funda- 
mentals 



154 College Teaching 

but, as already urged, in a course of intellectual training, 
these are to be regarded rather as the relics of the great 
agencies and the proofs of their actions, than as the most 
vital subjects of study, which are the agencies themselves. 
As already remarked, the geologic formations are to be 
treated rather as the credentials of the potencies that reside 
in the earth organism, than as the vital things themselves. 
The vestiges of creation and the footprints of historical 
progress embody the soul of the subject; they constitute 
the chief source of inspiration to those who aspire to think 
in large, deep ways of really great things. It is of little 
value, from the viewpoint of liberal culture, to know that 
there is a certain succession of sandstones, shales, and lime- 
stones; that professional convention has given them certain 
names, more or less infelicitous in derivation and in phonic 
quality; but it is of vital consequence to learn how and 
why these relics of former processes came to be left as 
they were left, and thus came to be witnesses, to the history 
of the far past. It was a wise thing, no doubt, that the 
fathers of geology strongly insisted that there should be 
a rigorous and rather literal adhesion to the terrestrial 
record in all earth studies, because in those times of transi- 
tion from the loose, more or less fantastic thought that 
marked the adolescent stage of the human race, it was im- 
perative that students should stick close to the immediate 
evidence of what had transpired, and should withhold them- 
selves from much enlargement of view based on the less 
tangible evidences; but at the present stage, when the gen- 
eral nature of the earth's history has been firmly established, 
it would be an error on the part of those who seek for the 
most liberalizing and broadening values of the science, to 
treat the record merely as a material register of immediate 
import only, to the neglect of the less tangible but more 
vital teachings immanent in its great forces and processes. 
The seeker of liberal culture should direct his attention 
to the great events, and, above all, to the larger and deeper 
meanings implied by these events. 

And so — may I be pardoned for reemphasizing? — the 



The Teaching of Geology 155 

teacher of geology whose essential purpose is liberal train- 
ing, leading to broad and firm knowledge and to sound 
processes of thought, will critically observe the distinction 
between geology taught appropriately from the collegiate 
point of view, and geology taught specifically from the pro- 
fessional and technical points of view. In these latter, 
specific details in specific lines are important, and may even 
be essential, but it is the function of the college teacher 
of geology to select from the great mass of material of the 
science such factors as are basal, vital, and talismanic. He 
will give these emphasis, while he neglects the multitude of 
details that lack significance as working elements or as 
landmarks of progress, whatever their value in other rela- 
tions. This selection is equally important, whether applied 
to the great physical processes that have shaped the earth 
into its present configuration, or to the great chemical and 
mineralogical processes that have determined its texture 
and its structure, or to the great biological and psychologi- 
cal processes that have given trend to the development of 
its inhabitants. 

Even if the undergraduate course in geology is pursued 
less for the purpose of liberal culture than as a means 
of preparing for a professional career as an economic 
geologist, no essential departure from an effort to master 
first the basal features and the broader aspects of the 
science, especially the dynamic aspects, is to be advised. 
The shortest road to declared success in professional and 
economic geology lies through the early mastery of its 
fundamentals. No doubt immediate and apparent success 
may often be sooner reached by a narrower and shallower 
study of such special phases of the subject as happen 
just now to be most obviously related to the existing state of 
the industries; but industrial demands are constantly 
changing ~ indeed, at present, rather rapidly — and new 
aspects follow one another in close succession. These new 
aspects almost inevitably spring from the more basal factors 
as these rise into function with the progress of experience 
or the stress of new demands. Those who have sought only 



156 College Teaching 

the immediate and the superficial, at the expense of the 
basal, and especially those who have neglected to acquire 
the power and the disposition to search out the funda- 
mentals, are quite sure to be left among the unfortunates 
who trail behind; they are little likely to be found among 
those who lead at the times when leadership counts. In 
the judgment of those master minds that lead in affairs 
and that take large and penetrating views, the lines along 
which the most vital contributions to economic interests 
are being made connect closely with basal studies of the 
actuating agencies that condition great enterprises. In the 
judgment of the writer, it is a false view to suppose that 
any short, superficial study of so vast a subject as the con- 
stitution and history of the earth can result in economic 
competency. In so far as time for study is limited, it 
should be concentrated on the great underlying factors that 
constitute the essentials of the science. It is here assumed 
that men who care to take a college course at all are 
seeking for a large success and are ambitious for a high 
personal career. If they look ultimately to professional 
work in economic lines, they may safely be advised that the 
straight road to declared success lies in a search for the 
vital forces, the critical agencies, and the profound prin- 
ciples that make for great results, not along the by-paths 
whose winding, superficial courses are turned hither and 
thither by adventitious conditions whose very nature invites 
distrust rather than confidence. 
Evaluations Turning to some of the more formal phases of treat- 
of teaching nient, three types of work are presented: (1) the use of 
nature's laboratory, the world itself, (2) the use of the 
college collections and laboratories, and (3) the use of the 
literature of the subject. 

(1) Fortunately, there is no place on the face of the earth 
where there is not some natural material for geologic study, 
for even in the most artificialized locations geological 
processes are active. In crowded cities these processes may 
be easily overlooked, but yet they are susceptible of effec- 
tive use. Within easy access from almost every college 



The Teaching of Geology 157 



site there are serviceable fields of study, and these, in any 
live course, will be assiduously cultivated. They may be 
relatively modest in their phenomena; they may seem to 
lack that impressiveness which has played so large a part 
in the popular notion of the content of geology, but they 
may nevertheless serve as most excellent training grounds 
for young geologists. If students are so situated as to be 
brought at the beginning of study under the influence of 
very impressive displays of geologic phenomena — 
precipitous mountains, rugged cliffs, deep canons, and the 
like — there is danger that their mental habits may become 
diffusive rather than close and keen; the emotions may be 
called forth in wonder rather than turned into zest in the 
search for evidence. If students are to be trained to 
diligence in inquiry and to the highest virility in inference 
and interpretation, it is perhaps fortunate for them if they 
are located where only modest records of geological pro- 
cesses are presented for study. In such regions they are 
more likely to be led to scrutinize the field keenly, sharply, 
and diligently for data on which to build their interpreta- 
tions. The scientific use of their imaginations is all the 
better trained if, in their endeavor to build up a consistent 
concept of the whole structure that underlies their field, 
they are forced to project their inferences from a few out- 
crops far beneath the cover of the adjacent mantle that shuts 
off direct vision. Few teachers have, therefore, any real 
occasion to long for richer fields than those accessible to 
them, if they have the tact to render these fertile in stimulus 
and suggestion. 

(2) Laboratory work upon the material collected in the 
field work, as well as laboratory work upon the college 
collections, are essential adjuncts. Ample provisions for 
this supplementary work, however modest the appointments, 
are important and can usually be secured by ingenuity and 
diligence in spite of financial limitations. 

Both field and laboratory work should be well correlated 
with one another and with the systematic work on the text 
that guides the study, so that each shall whet the edge of 



158 College Teaching 

the other and all together accomplish what neither could 
alone. 

(3) The text selected should be such as lends itself, in 
some notable degree at least, to the general purposes set 
forth above. It should be supplemented, so far as may be, 
by judicious assignments for reading and for special study. 
Lectures may be made a valuable aid to the discussions of 
the classroom, but with college classes they can rarely be 
made an advantageous substitute for the discussions. Lec- 
turing, so far as used, is best woven informally into the 
classroom discussions. Supplementary lecturettes may be 
advised if they are of such an informal sort that they may 
almost unconsciously take their start from any vital point 
encountered in the course of discussion, may run on as far 
as the occasion invites, and may then give way again to the 
discussion with the utmost informality. Such little partici- 
pations in the work of the classroom, on the part of the 
teacher, are likely to be cordially welcomed. At the same 
time, if well done, they will set an excellent example in 
the presentative art as also in an apt organization of 
thou?^ht. 
Organiza- jf '^^ stated course in earth-science is limited to the 

courses junior and senior years by the existing requirements of the 

curriculum of the institution or by the rulings of its officers 
— as is not uncommonly the case at present — it is rela- 
tively immaterial whether the sections of the course are 
marshaled under the single name " geology " or whether 
they are given separate titles as sub-sciences, provided the 
special subjects are arranged in logical sequence and in con- 
secutive order. If, on the other hand, the teacher's choice 
of time and relations is freer, the more accessible phases 
of earth study, now well organized under the name of 
" physiography," form an excellent course for either fresh- 
men or sophomores. It opens their minds to a world of 
interesting activities about 'them which have probably been 
largely overlooked in previous years. It gives them sub- 
stance of thought that will be of much service in the pursuit 
of other sciences. It has been found that it is not without 



The Teaching of Geology 159 

rather notable service to young students as the basis of 
efforts in the art of literary presentation, a felicity to which 
teachers of this important art frequently give emphatic 
testimony. The secret seems to lie in the fact that 
physiography gives varied and vivid material susceptible of 
literary presentation, while the fixed qualities of the subject 
matter control the choice of terms and the mode of expres- 
sion. 

If geography and physiography are given in the earlier 
years, the course in historical geology, as well as the study 
of the more difficult phases of geological processes, of the 
principles of dynamic geology, together with mineralogy, 
petrology, and paleontology, may best fall into the later 
years, even if some interval separates them from the 
geography and physiography. 

One hundred and twenty classroom hours, or their 
equivalent in laboratory and field work, are perhaps to be 
regarded as the irreducible minimum in a well-balanced 
undergraduate course, while twice that time or more is re- 
quired to give a notably strong college course in earth- 
science. 

A consideration of the sequences among the geological 
sub-subjects, as also among the subjects that are held to be 
preliminary to the earth-sciences, is important, but it would 
lead us too far into details which depend more or less on 
local conditions. In the experience of American teachers 
it appears to have been found advisable to put geological 
processes and typical phenomena to the front and to take 
up geological history afterwards. The earlier method of 
taking up the history first, beginning with recent stages 
and working backward down the ages, — once in vogue 
abroad, — has been abandoned in this country. It was the 
order in which the science was developed and it had the 
advantage of starting with the living present and with the 
most accessible formations, but this latter advantage 
is secured by studying the living processes, as such, first, 
and turning to the history later. This permits the study of 
the history in its natural order, which seems better to call 



160 College Teaching 

forth the relations of cause and effect and to give emphasis 
to the influence of inherited conditions. 

Respecting antecedents to the study, the more knowl- 
edge of physics, chemistry, zoology, and botany, the better, 
but it is easy to over-stress the necessity for such prepara- 
tion, however logical it may seem, for in reality all the 
natural sciences are so interwoven that, in strict logic, a 
complete knowledge of all the others should be had before 
any one is begun, a reductio ad ahsurdum. The sciences 
have been developed more or less contemporaneously and 
progressively, each helping on the others. They may be 
pursued much in the same way, or by alternations in which 
each prior study favors the sequent one. They may even 
be taken in a seemingly illogical order without serious dis- 
advantage, for the alternative advantages and other consid- 
erations may outweigh the force of the logical order, which 
is at best only partially logical. It is of prime importance 
to stimulate in students a habit of observing natural 
phenomena at an early age. It may be wise for a student 
to take up physiography, or its equivalent, early in the 
college course, irrespective of an ideal preparation in the 
related sciences. It is unfortunate to defer such study to a 
stage when the student's natural aptitude for observation 
and inference has become dulled by neglect or by confine- 
ment to subjects devoid of naturalistic stimulus. To permit 
students to take up earth-science in the freshman and 
sophomore years, even without the ideal preparation, is 
therefore probably wiser than to defer the study beyond the 
age of responsiveness to the touch of the natural environ- 
ment. The geographic and geologic environment condi- 
tioned the mental evolution of the race. It left an inherited 
impress on the perceptive and emotional nature, only to be 
awakened most felicitously, it would seem, at about the age 
at which the naturalistic phases of the youth's mentality 
were originally called into their most intense exercise. 

T. C. Chamberlin 

The University of Chicago 



I 



VIII 
THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS 

N recent years the teaching of mathematics has under- ^^.ecent 
1111 • -11 changes 

gone remarkable changes m many countries, both as re- and some 



gards method and as regards content. With respect to 
college mathematics these changes have been evidenced by 
a growing emphasis on applications and on the historic 
setting of the various questions. To understand one direct 
source of these changes it is only necessary to recall the 
fact that in about 1880 there began a steady stream of 
American mathematical students to Europe, especially to 
Germany. Most of these students entered the faculties of 
our colleges and universities on their return to America. 
It is therefore of great importance to inquire what mathe- 
matical situation served to inspire these students. 

The German mathematical developments of the greater 
part of the nineteenth century exhibited a growing tendency 
to disregard applications. It was not until about 1890 that 
a strong movement was inaugurated to lay more stress on 
applied mathematics in Germany.^ Our early American 
students therefore brought with them from Germany a de- 
cided tendency toward investigations in mathematical fields 
remote from direct contact with applications to other 
scientific subjects, such as physics and astronomy, which 
had so largely dominated mathematical investigations in 
earlier years. 

This picture would, however, be very incomplete with- 
out exhibiting another factor of a similar type working in 
our own midst. J. J. Sylvester was selected as the first 
professor of mathematics at Johns Hopkins University, 
which opened its doors in 1876 and began at once to wield 
a powerful influence in starting young men in higher re- 
search. Sylvester's own investigations related mainly to the 

1 P. Ziihlke. Zeitschrift fur Mathematischen und Naturwissenschaft- 
lichen Unterricht, Vol. 45 (1915), page 483. 

161 



of their 
sources 



162 



College Teaching 



Influence of 
researches in 
mathematics 
on methods 
of teaching 



formal and abstract side of mathematics. Moreover, " he 
was a poor teacher with an imperfect knowledge of mathe- 
matical literature. He possessed, however, an extraor- 
dinary personality, and had in remarkable degree the gift 
of imparting enthusiasm, a quality of no small value in 
pioneer days such as these were with us." ^ 

Mathematical research was practically introduced into the 
American colleges during the last quarter of the nineteenth 
century, and the wave of enthusiasm which attended this 
introduction was unfortunately not sufficiently tempered by 
emphasis on good teaching and breadth of knowledge, 
especially as regards applications. In fact, the leading 
mathematician in America during the early part of this 
period was glaringly weak along these lines. By means 
of his bountiful enthusiasm he was able to do a large 
amount of good for the selected band of gifted students 
who attended his lectures, but some of these were not so 
fortunate in securing the type of students who are helped 
more by the direct enthusiasm of their teacher than by the 
indirect enthusiasm resulting from good teaching. 

The need of good mathematical teaching in our colleges 
and universities began to become more pronounced at about 
the time that the wave of research enthusiasm set in, as a 
result of the growing emphasis on technical education which 
exhibited itself most emphatically in the development of the 
schools of engineering. While the student who is specially 
interested in mathematics may be willing to get along with 
a teacher whose enthusiasm for the new and general leads 
him to neglect to emphasize essential details in the presenta- 
tion, the average engineering student insists on clearness 
in presentation and usability of the results. As the latter 
student does not expect to become a mathematical specialist, 
he is naturally much more interested in good teaching than 
in the mathematical reputation of his teacher, even if 
his reputation is not an entirely insignificant factor for 
him. 

•^ Committee No. XII, American Report of the International Commis- 
sion on the Teaching of Mathematics, 1912, page 9. 



The Teaching of Mathematics 163 

During the last decade of the nineteenth century and the 
first decade of the present century the mathematical de- 
partments of our colleges and universities faced an un- 
usually serious situation as a result of the conditions just 
noted. The new wave of research enthusiasm was still in 
its youthful vigor and in its youthful mood of inconsider- 
ateness as regards some of the most important factors. On 
the other hand, many of the departments of engineering 
had become strong and were therefore able to secure the 
type of teaching suited to their needs. In a number of 
institutions this led to the breaking up of the mathematical 
department into two or more separate departments aiming 
to meet special needs. 

In view of the fact that the mathematical needs of these 
various classes of students have so much in common, lead- 
ing mathematicians viewed with much concern this tendency 
to disrupt many of the stronger departments. Hence the 
question of good teaching forced itself rapidly to the front. 
It was commonly recognized that the students of pure 
mathematics profit by a study of various applications of 
the theories under consideration, and that the students who 
expect to work along special technical lines gain by getting 
broad and comprehensive views of the fundamental mathe- 
matical questions involved. Moreover, it was also recog- 
nized that the investigational work of the instructors would 
gain by the broader scholarship secured through greater 
emphasis on applications and the historic setting of the 
various problems under consideration. 

To these fundamental elements relating to the improve- 
ment of college teaching there should perhaps be added one 
arising from the recognition of the fact that the number 
of men possessing excellent mathematical research ability 
was much smaller than the number of positions in the 
mathematical departments of our colleges and universities. 
The publication of inferior research results is of question- 
able value. On the other hand, many who could have done 
excellent work as teachers by devoting most of their energies 
to this work became partial failures both as teachers and as 



164 



College Teaching 



Range of 
subjects and 
preparation 
of students 



investigators through their ambition to excel in the latter 
direction. 

It should be emphasized that the college and university 
teachers of mathematics have to deal with a wide range 
of subjects and conditions, especially where graduate work 
is carried on. Advanced graduate students have needs 
which differ widely from those of the freshmen who aim to 
become engineers. This wide range of conditions calls for 
unusual adaptability on the part of the college and univer- 
sity teacher. This range is much wider than that which 
confronts the teachers in the high school, and the lack of 
sufficient adaptability on the part of some of the college 
teachers is probably responsible for the common impres- 
sion that some of the poorest mathematical teaching is done 
in the colleges. It is doubtless equally true that some of 
the very best mathematical teaching is to be found in these 
institutions. 

In some of the colleges there has been a tendency to 
diminish the individual range of mathematical teaching by 
explicitly separating the undergraduate work and the more 
advanced work. For instance, in Johns Hopkins University, 
L. S. Hulburt was appointed " Professor of Collegiate 
Mathematics " in 1897, with the understanding that he 
should devote himself to the interests of the undergraduates. 
In many of the larger universities the younger members of 
the department usually teach only undergraduate courses, 
while some of the older members devote either all or most 
of their time to the advanced work; but there is no uni- 
formity in this direction, and the present conditions are 
often unsatisfactory. 

The undergraduate courses in mathematics in the Ameri- 
can colleges and universities differ considerably. The 
normal beginning courses now presuppose a year of 
geometry and a year and a half of algebra in addition to 
the elementary courses in arithmetic, but much higher re- 
quirements are sometimes imposed, especially for engineer- 
ing courses. In recent years several of the largest universi- 
ties have reduced the minimum admission requirement in 



The Teaching of Mathematics 165 

algebra to one year's work, but students entering with this 
minimum preparation are sometimes not allowed to proceed 
with the regular mathematical classes in the university. 

Freshmen courses in mathematics differ widely, but the Variety of 
most common subjects are advanced algebra, plane trigo- courses in 
nometry, and solid geometry. The most common subjects mathematics 
of a somewhat more advanced type are plane analytic 
geometry, differential and integral calculus, and spherical 
trigonometry. Beyond these courses there is much less uni- 
formity, especially in those institutions which aim to com- 
plete a well-rounded undergraduate mathematical course 
rather than to prepare for graduate work. Among the most 
common subjects beyond those already named are differen- 
tial equations, theory of equations, solid analytic geometry, 
and mechanics. 

A very important element affecting the mathematical 
courses in recent years is the rapid improvement in the 
training of our teachers in the secondary schools. This has 
led to the rapid introduction of courses which aim to lead 
up to broad views in regard to the fundamental subjects. 
In particular, courses relating to the historical development 
of concepts involved therein are receiving more and more 
attention. Indirect historical sources have become much 
more plentiful in recent years through the publication of 
various translations of ancient works and through the pub- 
lication of extensive historical notes in the Encyclopedie 
des Sciences Mathematiques and in other less extensive 
works of reference. 

The problem presented by those who are preparing to 
teach mathematics may at first appear to differ widely from 
that presented by those who expect to become engineers. 
The latter are mostly interested in obtaining from their 
mathematical courses a powerful equipment for doing 
things, while the former take more interest in those de- 
velopments which illumine and clarify the elements of their 
subject. Hence the prospective teacher and the prospective 
engineer might appear to have conflicting mathematical in- 
terests. As a matter of fact, these interests are not con- 



166 College Teaching 

flicting. The prospective teacher is greatly benefited by the 
emphasis on the serviceableness of mathematics, and the 
prospective engineer finds that the generality and clarity 
of view sought by the prospective teacher is equally help- 
ful to him in dealing with new applications. Hence these 
two classes of students can well afford to pursue many of 
the early mathematical courses together, while the finish- 
ing courses should usually be different. 

The rapidly growing interest in statistical methods and 
in insurance, pensions, and investments has naturally di- 
rected special attention to the underlying mathematical 
theories, especially to the theory of probability. Some 
institutions have organized special mathematical courses re- 
lating to these subjects and have thus extended still further 
the range of undergraduate subjects covered by the mathe- 
matical departments. The rapidly growing emphasis on a 
college education specially adapted to the needs of the 
prospective business man has recently led to a greater 
emphasis on some of these subjects in several institutions. 

The range of mathematical subjects suited for graduate 
students is unlimited, but it is commonly assumed to be 
desirable that the graduate student should pursue at least 
one general course in each one of broader subjects such as 
the theory of numbers, higher algebra, theory of functions, 
and projective geometry, before he begins to specialize along 
a particular line. It is usually taken for granted that the 
undergraduate courses in mathematics should not presup- 
pose a knowledge of any language besides English, but 
graduate work in this subject cannot be successfully pursued 
in many cases without a reading knowledge of the three 
other great mathematical languages; viz., French, German, 
and Italian. Hence the study of graduate mathematics 
necessarily presupposes some linguistic training in addition 
to an acquaintance with the elements of fundamental mathe- 
matical subjects. 

Historical studies make especially large linguistic de- 
mands in case these studies are not largely restricted to pre- 
digested material. This is particularly true as regards the 



The Teaching of Mathematics 167 

older historical material. In the study of contemporary 
mathematical history the linguistic prerequisites are about 
the same as those relating to the study of other modern 
mathematical subjects. With the rapid spread of mathe- 
matical research activity during recent years there has come 
a growing need of more extensive linguistic attainments 
on the part of those mathematicians who strive to keep in 
touch with progress along various lines. For instance, a 
thriving Spanish national mathematical society was or- 
ganized in 1911 at Madrid, Spain, and in March, 1916, a 
new mathematical journal entitled Revista de Matematicas 
was started at Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic. Hence a 
knowledge of Spanish is becoming more useful to the mathe- 
matical student. Similar activities have recently been 
inaugurated in other countries. 

Until about the beginning of the nineteenth century the History of 
courses in college mathematics did not usually presuppose ^^^^J^f^ ^j^. 
a mathematical foundation carefully prepared for a super- 
structure. According to M. Gebhardt, the function of teach- 
ing elementary mathematics in Germany was assumed by 
the gymnasiums during the years from 1810 to 1830.^ Be- 
fore this time the German universities usually gave in- 
struction in the most elementary mathematical subjects. 
In our own country, Yale University instituted a mathe- 
matical entrance requirement under the title of arithmetic 
as early as 1745, but at Harvard University no mathe- 
matics was required for admission before 1803. 

On the other hand, UEcole Polytechnique of Paris, which 
occupies a prominent place in the history of college mathe- 
matics, had very high admission requirements in mathe- 
matics from the start. According to a law enacted in 
1795, the candidates for admission were required to pass 
an examination in arithmetic; in algebra, including the 
solution of equations of the first four degrees and the 
theory of series; and in geometry, including trigonometry, 
the applications of algebra to geometry, and conic sec- 

1 Internationale Mathematische Unterrichtskomission, Vol. 3, No, 6 
(1912), page 2. 



168 College Teaching 

tions.^ It should be noted that these requirements are 
more extensive than the usual present mathematical require- 
ments of our leading universities and technical schools, but 
UEcole Polytechnique laid special emphasis on mathema- 
tics and physics and became the world's prototype of strong 
technical institutions. 

The influence of UEcole Polytechnique was greatly aug- 
mented by the publication of a regular periodical entitled 
Journal de UEcole Polytechnique^ which was started in 
1795 and is still being published. A number of the 
courses of lectures delivered at UEcole Polytechnique and 
at UEcole Normale appeared in the early volumes of this 
journal. The fact that some of these courses were given 
by such eminent mathematicians as J. L. Lagrange, G. 
Monge, and P. S. Laplace is sufficient guarantee of their 
great value and of their good influence on the later text- 
books along similar lines. In particular, it may be noted 
that G. Monge gave the first course in descriptive geona- 
etry at L'Ecole Normale in 1795, and he was also for a 
number of years one of the most influential teachers at 
L^Ecole Polytechnique. 

A most fundamental element in the history of college 
mathematics is the broadening of the scope of the college 
work. As long as college students were composed almost 
entirely of prospective preachers, lawyers, and physicians, 
there was comparatively little interest taken in mathematics. 
It is true that the mental disciplinary value of mathematics 
was emphasized by many, but this supposed value did 
not put any real life into mathematical work. The dead 
abstract reasonings of Euclid's Elements, or even the 
number speculations of the ancient Pythagoreans, were 
enough to satisfy most of those who were looking to 
mathematics as a subject suitable for mental gymnastics. 

On the other hand, when the colleges began to train 
men for other lines of work, when the applications of 
steam led to big enterprises, like the building of rail- 

^ Journal de VEcole Polytechnique, Vol. 1 (1896), part 4, page Ix. 



The Teaching of Mathematics 169 



roads and large ocean steamers, mathematics became a 
living subject whose great direct usefulness in practical 
affairs began to be commonly recognized. Moreover, it 
became apparent that there was great need of mathematical 
growth, since mathematics was no longer to be used merely 
as mental Indian clubs or dumb-bells, where a limited 
assortment would answer all practical needs, but as an 
implement of mental penetration into the infinitude of 
barriers which have checked progress along various lines 
and seem to require an infinite variety of methods of pene- 
tration. 

The American colleges were naturally somewhat slower 
than some of those of Europe in adapting themselves to the 
changed conditions, but the rapidity of the changes in our 
country may be inferred from the fact that in the first half 
of the nineteenth century Harvard placed in comparatively 
short succession three mathematical subjects on its list 
of entrance requirements; viz., arithmetic in 1802, algebra 
in 1820, and geometry in 1844. Although Harvard had 
not established any mathematical admission requirements 
for more than a century and a half after its opening, she 
initiated three such requirements within half a century. 
It is interesting to note that for at least ninety years 
from the opening of Harvard, arithmetic was taught dur- 
ing the senior year as one of the finishing subjects of 
a college education.^ 

The passage of some of the subjects of elementary mathe- 
matics from the colleges to the secondary schools raised 
two very fundamental questions. The first of these con- 
cerned mostly the secondary schools, since it involved an 
adaptation to the needs of younger students of the more 
or less crystallized textbook material which came to them 
from the colleges. The second of these questions affected 
the colleges only, since it involved the selection of proper 
material to base upon the foundations laid by the secondary 
schools. It is natural that the influence of the colleges 

^F. Cajori, Teaching and History of Mathematics in the United 
States, 1890, page 22. 



170 



College Teaching 



schools and 
college 



should have been somewhat harmful with respect to the 
secondary schools, since the interests of the former seemed 
to be best met by restricting most of the energies of the 
secondary teachers of mathematics to the thorough drilling 
of their students in dexterous formal manipulations of 
algebraic symbols and the demonstration of fundamental 
abstract theoreins of geometry. 

Relation of Students who come to college with a solid and broad 

mathematics i-i -i iii 

in secondary foundation but Without any knowledge oi the superstruc- 
ture can readily be inspired and enthused by the erection 
of a beautiful superstructure on a foundation laid mostly 
underground, with little direct evidence of its value or im- 
portance. The injustice and shortsightedness of the ten- 
dency to restrict the secondary schools to such foundation 
work would not have been so apparent if the majority 
of the secondary school students would have entered col- 
lege. As a matter of fact it tended to bring secondary 
mathematics into disrepute and thus to threaten college 
mathematics at its very foundation. It is only in recent 
years that strong efforts have been made to correct this 
very serious mathematical situation. 

Much progress has been made toward the saner view of 
letting secondary mathematics build its little structure into 
the air with some view to harmony and proportion, and of 
requiring college mathematics to build on as well as upon 
the work done by the secondary schools. The fruitful and 
vivifying notions of function, derivative, and group are 
slowly making their way into secondary mathematics, and 
the graphic methods have introduced some of the charms of 
analytic geometry into the same field. 

This transformation is naturally affecting college mathe 
matics most profoundly. The tedious work of building 
foundations in college mathematics is becoming more im- 
perative. The use of the rock drill is forcing itself more 
and more on the college teacher accustomed to use only 
hammer and saw. As we are just entering upon this situ- 
ation, it is too early to prophesy anything in regard to 
its permanency, but it seems likely that the secondary 



The Teaching of Mathematics 171 



teachers will no more assume a yoke which some of the 
college teachers would so gladly have them bear and which 
they bore a long time with a view to serving the interests 
of the latter teachers. 

As many of the textbooks used by secondary teachers 
are written by college men, and as the success of these 
teachers is often gauged by the success of their students 
who happen to go to college, it is easily seen that there 
is a serious temptation on the part of the secondary teacher 
to look at his work through the eyes of the college teacher. 
The recent organizations which bring together the college 
and the secondary teachers have already exerted a very 
wholesome influence and have tended to exhibit the fact 
that the success of the college teacher of mathematics is 
very intimately connected with that of the teachers of second- 
ary mathematics. 

While it is difficult to determine the most important 
single event in the history of college teaching in America, 
there are few events in this history which seem to deserve 
such a distinction more than the organization of the Mathe- 
matical Association of America which was effected in De- 
cember, 1915. This association aims especially to pro- 
mote the interests of mathematics in the collegiate field 
and it publishes a journal entitled The American Mathe- 
matical Monthly, containing many expository articles of 
special interest to teachers. It also holds regular meet- 
ings and has organized various sections so as to enable 
its members to attend meetings without incurring the ex- 
pense of long trips. Its first four presidents were E. R. 
Hedrick, Florian Cajori, E. V. Huntington, and H. E. 
Slaught. 

An event which has perhaps affected the very vitals 
of mathematical teaching in America still more is the 
founding of the American Mathematical Society in 1888, 
called the New York Mathematical Society until 1894. 
Through its Bulletin and Transactions, as well as through 
its meetings and colloquia lectures, this society has stood 
for inspiration and deep mathematical interest without 



172 



College Teaching 



Aims of 
college 
mathe- 
matics: 
methods of 
teaching 



which college teaching will degenerate into an art. Dur- 
ing the first thirty years of its history it has had as presi- 
dents the following: J. H. Van Amringe, Emory McClin- 
tock, G. W. Hill, Simon Newcomb, R. S. Woodward, E. H. 
Moore, T. S. Fiske, W. F. Osgood, H. S. White, Maxime 
Bocher, H. B. Fine, E. B. Van Vleck, E. W. Brown, L. E. 
Dickson, and Frank Morley. 

The aims of college mathematics can perhaps be most 
clearly understood by recalling the fact that mathematics 
constitutes a kind of intellectual shorthand and that many 
of the newer developments in a large number of the sciences 
tend toward pure mathematics. In particular, " there is a 
constant tendency for mathematical physics to be absorbed 
in pure mathematics.^ As sciences grow, they tend to re- 
quire more and more the strong methods of intellectual 
penetration provided by pure mathematics. 

The principal modern aim of college mathematics is 
not the training of the mind, but the providing of infor- 
mation which is absolutely necessary to those who seek to 
work most efficiently along various scientific lines. Mathe- 
matical knowledge rather than mathematical discipline is 
the main modern objective in the college courses in mathe- 
matics. As this knowledge must be in a usable form, its 
acquisition is naturally attended by mental discipline, but 
the knowledge is absolutely needed and would have to be 
acquired even if the process of acquisition were not at- 
tended by a development of intellectual power. 

The fact that practically all of the college mathematics 
of the eighteenth century has been gradually taken over 
by the secondary schools of today might lead some to 
question the wisdom of replacing this earlier mathematics 
by more advanced subjects. In particular, the question 
might arise whether the college mathematics of today is not 
superfluous. This question has been partially answered by 
the preceding general observations. The rapid scientific 
advances of the past century have increased the mathe- 

^ A, E. H. Love, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 
Vol. 14 (1915), page 183. 



The Teaching of Mathematics 173 



matical needs very rapidly. The advances in college mathe- 
matics which have been made possible by the improvements 
of the secondary schools have scarcely kept up with the 
growth of these needs, so that the current mathematical 
needs cannot be as fully provided for by the modern col- 
lege as the recognized mathematical needs of the eighteenth 
century were provided for by the colleges of those days. 

There appears to be no upper limit to the amount of 
useful mathematics, and hence the aim of the college 
must be to supply the mathematical needs of the students 
to the greatest possible extent under the circumstances. 
In order to supply these needs in the most economical man- 
ner, it seems necessary that some of them should be sup- 
plied before they are fully appreciated on the part of the 
student. The first steps in many scientific subjects do not 
call for mathematical considerations and the student fre- 
quently does not go beyond these first steps in his college 
days, but he needs to go much further later in life. Col- 
lege mathematics should prepare for life rather than for 
college days only, and hence arises the desirability of deeper 
mathematical penetration than appears directly necessary 
for college work. 

Another reason for more advanced mathematics than 
seems to be directly needed by the student is that the more 
advanced subjects in mathematics are a kind of applied 
mathematics relative to the more elementary ones, and the 
former subjects serve to throw much light on the latter. 
In other words, the student who desires to understand an 
elementary subject completely should study more advanced 
subjects which are connected therewith, since such a study 
is usually more effective than the repeated review of the 
elementary subject. In particular, many students secure 
a better understanding of algebra during their course in 
calculus than during the course in algebra itself, and a 
course in differential equations will throw new light on 
the course in calculus. Hence college mathematics usually 
aims to cover a rather wide range of subjects in a com- 
paratively short time. 



Advanced 
work in 
college 
mathematics 



174 



College Teaching 



Mathematics 
and 

technical 
education 



Since mathematics is largely the language of advanced 
science, especially of astronomy, physics, and engineering, 
one of the prominent aims of college mathematics should 
be to keep in close touch with the other sciences. That 
is, the idea of rendering direct and efficient services to other 
departments should animate the mathematical department 
more deeply than any other department of the university. 
The tendency toward disintegration to which we referred 
above has forcefully directed attention to the great need 
of emphasizing this aspect of our subject, since such dis- 
integration is naturally accompanied by a weakening of 
mathematical vigor. It may be noted that such a dis- 
integration would mean a reverting to primitive conditions, 
since some of the older works treated mathematics merely 
as a chapter of astronomy. This was done, for instance, 
in some of the ancient treatises of the Hindus. 

The great increase in college students during recent 
years and the growing emphasis on college activities out- 
side of the work connected with the classroom, especially on 
those relating to college athletics, would doubtless have 
left college mathematics in a woefully neglected state if 
there had not been a rapidly growing interest in technical 
education, especially in engineering subjects, at the same 
time. Naval engineering was one of the first scientific 
subjects to exert a strong influence on popularizing mathe- 
matics. In particular, the teaching of mathematics in the 
Russian schools supported by the government began with 
the founding of the government school for mathematics 
and navigation at Moscow in 1701. It is interesting to 
note that the earlier Russian schools established by the 
clergy after the adoption of Christianity in that country 
did not provide for the teaching of any arithmetic what- 
ever, notwithstanding the usefulness of arithmetic for the 
computing of various dates in the church calendar, for 
land surveying, and for the ordinary business transactions.^ 
in 



The direct aims in the teaching of college mathematics 

IV. V. Bobynin, UEnseigtiement Mathematique, Vol. 1 (1899), page 
78. 



The Teaching of Mathematics 175 



have naturally been somewhat affected by the needs of the 
engineering students, who constitute in many of our lead- 
ing institutions a large majority in the mathematical classes. 
These students are usually expected to receive more drill 
in actual numerical work than is demanded by those who 
seek mainly a deeper penetration into the various mathe- 
matical theories. The most successful methods of teach- 
ing the former students have much in common with those 
usually employed in the high schools and are known as 
the recitation and problem-solving methods. They involve 
the correction and direct supervision of a large number of 
graded exercises worked out by the students on the black- 
board or on paper, and aim to overcome the peculiar diffi- 
culties of the individual students. 

The lecture method, on the other hand, aims to exhibit 
the main facts in a clear light and to leave to the student 
the task of supplying further illustrative examples and of 
reconsidering the various steps. The purely lecture method 
does not seem to be well adapted to American conditions, 
and it is frequently combined with what is commonly 
known as the " quiz." The quiz seems to be an American 
institution, although it has much in common with a species 
of the French " conference." It is intended to review 
the content of a set of lectures by means of discussions 
in which the students and the teacher participate, and it is 
most commonly employed in connection with the courses 
of an advanced undergraduate or of a beginning graduate 
grade. 

A prominent aim in graduate courses is to lead the 
student as rapidly as possible to the boundary of knowl- 
edge along the particular line considered therein. While 
some of the developments in such courses are apt to be 
somewhat special or to be too general to have much mean- 
ing, their novelty frequently adds a sufficiently strong 
element of interest to more than compensate losses in other 
directions. Moreover, the student who aims to do research 
work will thus be enabled to consider various fields as re- 
gards their attractiveness for prolonged investigations of 
his own. 



176 



College Teaching 



Preparation 
of the 
college 
teacher of 
mathematics 



The fact that the college teacher has need of much more 
mathematical knowledge than he can possibly secure dur- 
ing the period of his preparation, especially if he expects 
to take an active part in research and in directing graduate 
work, has usually led to the assumption that the future 
teacher of college mathematics should devote all his ener- 
gies to securing a deep mathematical insight and a wide 
range of mathematical knowledge.^ On the other hand, 
students prepared in accord with this assumption have fre- 
quently found it very difficult to adapt themselves to the 
needs of large freshman classes of engineering students 
entering upon the duties for which they were supposed to 
have been prepared. 

The breadth of view and the sweep of abstraction needed 
for effective graduate work have little in common with 
accuracy in numerical work and emphasis on details which 
are so essential to the young engineering students. The 
difficulty of the situation is increased by the fact that the 
young instructor is often led to believe that his advance- 
ment and the appreciation of his services are directly pro- 
portional to his achievements in investigations of a high 
order. This belief naturally leads many to begrudge the 
time and thought which their teaching duties should nor- 
mally receive. 

The young college teacher of mathematics is thus con- 
fronted with a much more complex situation than that 
which confronts the mathematics teachers in secondary 
school work. Here the success in the classroom is the one 
great goal, and the mathematical knowledge required is 
comparatively very modest. Possibly the situation of the 
college teacher could be materially improved if it were 
understood that his first promotion would be mainly de- 
pendent upon his success as a teacher, but that later pro- 
motions involved the element of productive scholarship in 
an increasing ratio. 

The schools of education which have in recent years 

^ The Training of Teachers of Mathematics, 1917, by R. C. Archibald. 
Bulletin No. 27, 1917, United States Bureau of Education. 



The Teaching of Mathematics 177 

been established in most of our leading universities have 
thus far had only a slight influence on the preparation of 
the college teachers, but it seems likely that this influence 
will increase as the needs of professional training become 
better known. It is probably true that the ratio of courses 
on methods to courses on knowledge of the subject will 
always be largest for the elementary teacher, in view of the 
great diff'erence between the mental maturity of the student 
and the teacher, somewhat less for the secondary teacher 
and least for the college teacher; but this least should not 
be zero, as is so frequently the case at present, since there 
usually is even here a considerable diff'erence between the 
mathematical maturity of the student and that of the teacher. 

It may be argued that the future college teacher will 
probably profit more by noting the methods employed 
by his instructors than he would by the theoretic discus- 
sions relating to methods. This is doubtless true, but it 
does not prove that the latter discussions are without value. 
On the other hand, these discussions will often serve to 
fix more attention on the former methods and will lead 
the student to note more accurately their import and prob- 
able adaptability to the needs of the younger students. 

Among tlie useful features for the training of the future 
mathematics teachers are the mathematical clubs which are 
connected with most of the active mathematical depart- 
ments. In many cases, at least, two such clubs are main- 
tained, the one being devoted largely to the presentation 
of research work while the other aims to provide oppor- 
tunities for the presentation of papers of special interest 
to the students. The latter papers are often presented by 
graduate students or by advanced undergraduates, and they 
offer a splendid opportunity for such students to acquire 
effective and clear methods of presentation. The same de- 
sirable end is often promoted by reports given by students 
in seminars or in advanced courses. 

Prominent factors in the training of the future college 
teachers are the teaching scholarships or fellowships and 
the assistantships. Many of the larger universities pro- 



178 College Teaching 

vide a number of positions of this type. It sometimes 
happens that the teaching duties connected with these posi- 
tions are so heavy as to leave too little energy for vigorous 
graduate work. On the other hand, these positions have 
made it possible for many to continue their graduate studies 
longer than they could otherwise have done and at the 
same time to acquire sound habits of teaching while in 
close contact with men of proved ability along this line. 

It should be emphasized that the ideal college teacher of 
mathematics is not the one who acquires a respectable fund 
of mathematical knowledge which he passes along to his 
students, but the one imbued with an abiding interest in 
learning more and more about his subject as long as 
life lasts. This interest naturally soon forces him to con- 
duct researches where progress usually is slow and uncer- 
tain. Research work should be animated by the desire 
for more knowledge and not by the desire for publication. 
In fact, only those new results should be published which 
are likely to be helpful to others in starting at a more 
favorable point in their efforts to secure intellectual mas- 
tery over certain important problems. 

Half a century ago it was commonly assumed that gradu- 
ation from a good college implied enough training to 
enter upon the duties of a college teacher, but this view 
has been practically abandoned, at least as regards the 
college teacher of mathematics. The normal preparation 
is now commonly placed three years later, and the Ph.D. 
degree is usually regarded to be evidence of this normal 
preparation. This degree is supposed by many to imply 
that its possessor has reached a stage where he can do 
independent research work and direct students who seek 
similar degrees. In view of the fact that in America as 
well as in Germany the student often receives much direct 
assistance while working on his Ph.D. thesis, this suppo- 
sition is frequently not in accord with the facts. ^ 

The emphasis on the Ph.D. degree for college teachers 
has in many cases led to an improvement in ideals, but 
iCf. M. Bocher, Science, Vol. 38 (1913), page 546. 



The Teaching of Mathematics 179 

in some other cases it has had the opposite effect. Too 
many possessors of this degree have been able to count 
on it as accepted evidence of scientific attainments, while 
they allowed themselves to become absorbed in non-scien- 
tific matters, especially in administrative details. Pro- 
fessors of mathematics in our colleges have been called 
on to shoulder an unusual amount of the administrative 
work, and many men of fine ability and scholarship have 
thus been hindered from entering actively into research 
work. Conditions have, however, improved rapidly in re- 
cent years, and it is becoming better known that the produc- 
tive college teacher needs all his energies for scientific 
work; and in no field is this more emphatically true than in 
mathematics. Some departmental administrative duties will 
doubtless always devolve upon the mathematics teachers. 
By a careful division of these duties they need not inter- 
fere seriously with the main work of the various teachers. 

The American teachers of mathematics follow the textbook The mathe- 

. r • matical text- 

more closely than is customary m Germany, tor mstance. book 
Among college teachers there is a wide difference of view 
in regard to the suitable use of the textbook. While some 
use it simply for the purpose of providing illustrative ex- 
amples and do not expect the student to begin any sub- 
ject by a study of the presentation found in the textbook, 
there are others who expect the normal student to secure 
all the needed assistance from the textbook and who em- 
ploy the class periods mainly for the purpose of teach- 
ing the students how to use the textbook most effectively. 
The practice of most teachers falls between these two ex- 
tremes, and, as a rule, the textbook is followed less and less 
closely as the student advances in his work. In fact, in 
many advanced courses no particular textbook is followed. 
In such courses the principal results and the exercises are 
often dictated by the teacher or furnished by means of 
mimeographed notes. 

The close adherence to the textbook is apt to cultivate 
the habit on the part of the student of trying to under- 
stand what the author meant instead of confining his atten- 



180 College Teaching 

tion to trying to understand the subject. In view of the 
fact that the American secondary mathematics teachers usu- 
ally follow textbooks so slavishly, the college teacher of 
mathematics who believes in emphasizing the subject rather 
than the textbook often meets with considerable difficulty 
with the beginning classes. On the other hand, it is clear 
that as the student advances he should be encouraged to 
seek information from all available sources instead of from 
one particular book only. The rapid improvement in our 
library facilities makes this attitude especially desirable. 

An advantage of the textbook is that it is limited in 
all directions, while the subject itself is of indefinite extent. 
In the textbook the subject has been pressed into a linear 
sequence, while its natural form usually exhibits various di- 
mensions. The textbook presents those phases about which 
there is usually no doubt, while the subject itself exhibits 
limitations of knowledge in many directions. From these 
few characteristics it is evident that the study of textbooks 
is apt to cultivate a different attitude and a different point 
of view from those cultivated by the unhampered study 
of subjects. The latter are, however, the ones which corre- 
spond to the actual world and which therefore should re- 
ceive more and more emphasis as the mental vision of the 
student can be enlarged. 

The number of different available college mathematical 
textbooks on the subjects usually studied by the large classes 
of engineering students has increased rapidly in recent 
years. On the other hand, the number of suitable text- 
books for the more advanced classes is often very limited. 
In fact, it is often found desirable to use textbooks written 
in some foreign language, especially in French, German, 
or Italian, for such courses. This procedure has the ad- 
vantage that it helps to cultivate a better reading knowl- 
edge of these languages, which is in itself a very worthy 
end for the advanced student of mathematics. This pro- 
cedure has, however, become less necessary in recent years 
in view of the publication of various excellent advanced 
works in the English language. ... : 



The Teaching of Mathematics 181 

The greatest mathematical treasure is constituted by the 
periodic literatures, and the larger colleges and universi- 
ties aim to have complete sets of the leading mathematical 
periodicals available for their students. This literature has 
been made more accessible by the publication of various 
catalogues, such as the Subject Index, Volume I, published 
by the Royal Society of London in 1908, and the volumes 
" A " of the annual publications entitled International Cata- 
logue of Scientific Literature. All students who have access 
to large libraries should learn how to utilize this great 
store of mathematical lore whenever mathematical ques- 
tions present themselves to them in their scientific work. 
This is especially true as regards those who specialize along 
mathematical lines. 

In some of the colleges and universities general infor- 
mational courses along mathematical lines have been organ- 
ized under different names, such as history of mathematics, 
synoptic course, fundamental concepts, cultural course, etc. 
Several books have recently been prepared with a view 
to meeting the needs of textbooks for such courses. College 
teachers of mathematics usually find it difficult to interest 
their students sufficiently in the current periodic literature, 
and one of the greatest problems of the college teacher is 
to instill such a broad interest in mathematics that the 
student will seek mathematical knowledge in all available 
sources instead of confining himself to the study of a few 
textbooks or the work of a particular school. 

G. A. Miller 

University of Illinois 



182 College Teaching 



References 

For articles on the teaching of mathematics which appeared during 
the nineteenth century, consult 0050 Pedagogy in the Royal Society 
Index, Vol. 1, Pure Mathematics, 1908. For literature appearing 
during the first twelve years of the present century the reader may 
consult the Bibliography of the Teaching of Mathematics, 1900-1912, 
by D. E. Smith and Charles Goldziher, published by the United States 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1912, No. 29. More recent literature 
may be found by consulting annual indexes, such as the International 
Catalogue of Scientific Literature, A, Mathematics, under 0050, and 
Revue Semestrielle des Publication's Mathematiques, under V 1. The 
volumes of the international review entitled U Enseignement Mathema- 
tique, founded in 1899, contain a large number of articles relating to 
college teaching. This subject will be treated in the closing volumes 
of the large French and German mathematical encyclopedias in course 
of publication. 



IX 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE COLLEGE 

THE events of the four years between the summer of J-^JS^^' 
1914 and the winter of 1918 have brought us to a education 
full realization of the real significance of physical edu- Joridwar 
cation in the training of youth. America and her allies 
have had very dramatic reasons for regretting their care- 
less indifference to the welfare of childhood and youth in 
former years. Only yesterday, we were told that the great 
war would be won by the country that could furnish the 
last man or fight for the last quarter of an hour. America 
and her allies looked with a new and fearful concern upon 
the army of young men who were found physically unfit 
for military service. 

With the danger of war past, there is no lack of evidence 
that we and our allies will make practical application of 
this particular lesson. It will be fortunate indeed if the 
enlightened people of the earth are really permanently 
awake to the importance of the physical education of their 
citizens-in-the-making. 

Governmental agencies have already started the move- 
ment to guarantee to the coming generation more exten- 
sive and more scientific physical education. Public and 
private institutions are joining forces so that the advantages 
of this extended program of physical education will be en- 
joyed by the young men and young women in industry and 
commerce as well as by those in schools and colleges. 

It is to be hoped that the American college will do its 
full share and neglect no reasonable measure whereby the 
college graduate may be developed into the vigorous and 
healthy human being that the mentally trained ought to 
be. It must be admitted that our findings by the military 
draft boards, as well as other evidences secured through 
physical examinations, are not such as to make the American 
college proud of the quality or the extent of physical edu- 

183 



184 



College Teaching 



Aims of 

physical 

education 



Formula- 
tions of 
aims and 
scope of 
physical 
education 
in official 
documents 
— By Ee- 
gents of the 
State of 
New York 



By national 
committee 
on physical 
education 



cation which it has given in the past. We must express 
our keen disappointment at the prevalence of under-develop- 
ment, remediable defects, and unachieved physical and 
functional possibilities in our college graduates. 

Physical training is « concerned with the achievement and 
the conservation of human health. It has to do with con- 
ditioning the human being for the exigencies of life in 
peace or in war. Its standards are not set by a degree 
of health which merely enables the individual to keep out 
of bed, eat three meals a day, and run no abnormal tem- 
perature. Physical training is concerned with developing 
vigorous, enduring health that is based upon the perfect 
function, coordination, and integration of every organ of 
the human body; health that is not found wanting at the 
military draft; health that meets all its community obliga- 
tions; health that is not affected by diseases of decay; and 
health that resists infection and postpones preventable 
death. 

Official statements and information from reliable sources 
indicate that physical education and hygiene and physical 
training are regarded by authorities as covering about the 
same general field. The general plan and syllabus for 
physical training adopted by the Regents of the University 
of the State of New York in 1916 interprets physical train- 
ing as covering " (1) Individual health examinations and 
personal health instruction (medical inspection) ; (2) in- 
struction concerning the care of the body and the important 
facts of hygiene (recitations in hygiene) ; (3) physical ex- 
aminations as a health habit, including gymnastics, ele- 
mentary marching, and organized, supervised play, recrea- 
tion, and athletics." 

In March of 1918 a National Committee on Physical Edu- 
cation, formed of representatives from twenty or more 
national organizations, adopted the following resolutions: 

I. That a comprehensive, thoroughgoing program of health educa- 
tion and physical education is absolutely needed for all boys 
and girls of elementary and secondary school age, both rural 
and urban, in every state in the Union. 



Physical Education 185 



ir. That legislation, similar in purpose and scope to the provi- 
sions and requirements in the laws recently enacted in Cali- 
fornia, New York State, and New Jersey, is desirable in every 
state, to provide authorization and support for state-wide pro- 
grams m the health and physical education field. 

III. That the United States Bureau of Education should be empow- 
ered by law, and provided with sufficient appropriations to 
exert adequate influence and supervision in relation to a nation- 

TV ^ program of instruction in health and physical education. 

IV. That it seems most desirable that Congress should give recog- 
nition to this vital and neglected phase of education, with a 
bill and appropriation similar in purpose and scope to the 
^mith-Hughes Law, to give sanction, leadership, and support 
to a national program of health and physical education; and to 
encourage, standardize, and, in part, finance the practical program 
of constructive work that should be undertaken in every state. 

V. Ihat federal recognition, supervision, and support are urgently 
needed, as the effective means, under the Constitution, to secure 
that universal training of boys and girls in health and physical 
fatness which are equally essential to efficiency of all citizens 
both m peace and in war. 

In December, 1918, five national organizations, assem- By five na- 
bled in regular annual meeting, adopted resolutions which S*niL?fons 
read in part as follows: 

First: That this Society shall make eyery reasonable effort to 
influence the Congress of the United States and the legislatures 
of our various states to enact laws providing for the effective 
physical education of all children of all ages in our elementary and 
secondary schools, public, institutional and private, a physical 
education that will bring these children instruction in hygiene, 
regular periodic health examinations and a training in the practice 
of health habits with a full educational emphasis upon play, 
games, recreation, athletics and physical exercise, and shall fur- 
ther make every possible reasonable effort to influence communi- 
ties and municipalities to enact laws and pass ordinances provid- 
ing for community and industrial physical training and recreative 
activities for all classes and ages of society. 

Second: That this Association shall make persistent effort to 
influence state boards of education, or their equivalent bodies, in 
all the states of the United States, to make it their effective rule 
that on or after June, 1922, or some other reasonable date, no 
applicant may receive a license to teach any subject in any school 
who does not first present convincing evidence of having covered 
m creditable manner a satisfactory course in physical education in 
a reputable training school for teachers. 



186 



College Teaching 



By the 
United 
States In- 
terdepart- 
mental 
Social 
Hygiene 
Board 



Third: And that this Association hereby directs and authorizes 
its president to appoint a committee of three to take such steps 
as may be necessary to put the above resolutions into active and 
effective operation, and to cooperate in every practical and sub- 
stantial way with the National Committee on Physical Education, 
the division of physical education of the Playground and Recrea- 
tion Association of America, and any other useful agency that 
may be in the field for the purpose of securing the proper and suf- 
ficient physical education of the boys and girls of to-day, so that 
they may to-morrow constitute a nation of men and women of 
normal physical growth, normal physical development and normal 
functional resource, practicing wise habits of health conservation 
and possessed of greater consequent vitality, larger endurance, 
longer lives and more complete happiness — the most precious as- 
sets of a nation. 

In January, 1919, the United States Interdepartmental 
Social Hygiene Board suggested the following organization 
of a department of hygiene for the purpose of establishing 
such a department in at least one normal school, college, 
or university training school for teachers in each state of 
the Union. 

SUGGESTED ORGANIZATION OF A DEPARTMENT OF HYGIENE 

I. Division of Informational Hygiene. (Stressing in each of its 
several divisions with due proportion and with appropriate 
emphasis, the venereal diseases, their causes, carriers, injuries, 
and prevention) : 

{a) The principles of hygiene. Required of all students at 
least twice a week for at least four terms. 

(1) General hygiene. (The agents that injure 

health, the carriers of disease, the contribu- 
tory causes of poor health, the defenses of 
health, and the sources of health.) 

(2) Individual hygiene. (Informational hygiene, the 

care of the body and its organs, correction, and 
repair, preventive hygiene, constructive hy- 
giene.) 

(3) Group hygiene. (Hygiene of the home and the 

family, school hygiene, occupational hygiene, 
community hygiene.), 

(4) Intergroup hygiene. (Interfamily, intercommun- 

ity, interstate, and international hygiene.) 
ih) Principles of physical training. (Gymnastics, exercise, 
athletics, recreation, and play.) Required of all 
students. To be given at least twice a week for two 
terms in the Junior or Senior Years. 



Physical Education 187 

(c) Health examinations — 

(1) Medical examination required each half year of 

every student. (Making reasonable provisions 
for a private, personal, confidential relation- 
ship between the examiner and the student.) 

(2) Sanitary surveys and hygienic inspections ap- 

plied regularly to all divisions of the in- 
stitution, their curriculums, buildings, dormi- 
tories, equipment, personal service, and sur- 
roundings. 

II. Division of Applied Hygiene. 

ia) Health conference and consultations. 

(1) Every student advised under "c" above (health 

examinations) must report to his health ex- 
aminer within a reasonable time, as directed, 
with evidence that he has followed the advice 
given, or with a satisfactory explanation for 
not having done so. 

(2) Must provide student with opportunities for 

safe, confidential consultations with com- 
petent medical advisors concerning the inti- 
mate problems of sex life as well as those of 
hygiene in general. 
ib) Physical training. 

(1) Gymnastic exercises, recreation, games, athletics, 

and competitive sports. Required of all 
students six hours a week every term. 

(2) Reconstructional and special training and exer- 

cise for students not qualified organically for 
the regular activities covered in " 1 " above. 
It is assumed that every teacher-in-training 
physically able to go to school is entitled to 
and should take some form of physical exer- 
cise. 

III. Division of Research. 

ia) Investigations, tests, evaluating measurements, records, 
and reports required each term covering progress made 
under each division and subdivision of the department, 
for the purpose of discovering and developing more ef- 
fective educational methods in hygiene, 

(fe) Provide facilities for the sifting, selection, and investiga- 
tion of problems in hygiene that may be submitted to 
or proposed by the department of hygiene. 

(c) Arrange for frequent lectures on public hygiene and 
public health from competent members of municipal, 



188 College Teaching 

state, and national departments of health, and from 
other appropriate sources. 

IV. Personnel requisite for such a department. — Men and women 
should be chosen for service in the several divisions of the De- 
partment, who have a sane, well-balanced, and experienced ap- 
preciation of the importance of the whole field of hygiene as 
well as of the place and relations of the venereal diseases. 

(1) One director or head of department. Must have satis- 

factory scientific training and special experience, fit- 
ting him for supervision, leadership, teaching, research, 
and administrative responsibility. 

(2) One medical examiner for men and one medical ex- 

aminer for women. There should be one examiner for 
each 500 students. Must be selected with special care 
because of the presence of extraordinary opportuni- 
ties to exercise a powerful intimate influence upon the 
mental, moral, and physical health of the students 
with whom such examiners come in contact. 

(3) One special teacher of physical training (a " Physical 

Director") for each group of 500 students. There 
must be a man for the men and a woman for the 
women students. The physical training instructors em- 
ployed in this department should be in charge of and 
should cover satisfactorily all the directing, training, 
and coaching carried on in the department and in the 
institution in its relation to athletics and competitive 
sports. The men and women who are placed in charge 
of individual students and groups of students engaged in 
the various activities of physical training (gymnastics, 
athletics, recreation and play) should be selected with 
special reference to their wholesome influence on young 
men and young women. 

(4) One coordinator (this function may be covered by one 

of the personnel covered by "1," "2" or "3" above). 
Will serve to influence every teacher in every depart- 
ment on the entire staff of the institution to meet his 
obligations, in relation to the individual hygiene of the 
students in his classes and to the sanitation of the 
class rooms in which he meets his students. The co- 
ordinator should bring information to all teachers and 
assist them to meet more satisfactorily their oppor- 
tunities to help students in their individual problems 
in social hygiene. 

(5) Special lectures on the principles and progress of pub- 

lic hygiene and public health. A close coordination 



Physical Education 



189 



should be secured between this department and com- 
munity agencies like the Department of Health that 
are concerned with public hygiene. 
(6) Sufficient clerical, stenographic and filing service to 
meet the needs of the department. 

In February, 1919, the field service of the National Com- 
mittee on Physical Education issued a tentative outline for 
a state law for physical education, suggested for use in 
planning future legislation. The purposes of physical edu- 
cation as stated in the preamble of this law read as follows: 

1, In order that the children of the State of shall re- 
ceive a quality and an amount of physical education that will 
bring to them the health, growth and a normal organic develop- 
ment that is essential to their fullest present and future education, 
happiness and usefulness; and in order that the future citizenship 

of the State of may receive regularly from the growing and 

developing youth of the Commonwealth a rapidly increasing num- 
ber of more vigorous, better educated, healthier, happier, more pros- 
perous and longer lived men and women, we, the people of the State 
of represented in the Senate and Assembly do enact as fol- 
lows : 

In February, 1919, the legislative committee of the Na- 
tional Committee on Physical Education prepared a bill for 
federal legislation for the purpose of assisting the states 
in establishing physical education in their schools. This 
proposed federal law stated the purpose and aim of physi- 
cal education as follows: 

The purpose and aim of physical education in the meaning of 
this act shall be: more fully and thoroughly to prepare the boys 
and girls of the nation for the duties and responsibilities of citizen- 
ship through the development of bodily vigor and endurance, mus- 
cular strength and skill, bodily and mental poise, and such desir- 
able moral and social qualities as courage, self-control, self-subordin- 
ation and obedience to authority, cooperation under leadership, 
and disciplined initiative. The processes and agencies for secur- 
ing these ends shall be understood to include: comprehensive courses 
of physical training activities, periodical physical examination; cor- 
rection of postural and other remediable defects; health supervision 
of schools and school children; practical instruction in the care of 
the body and in the principles of health ; hygienic school life, sanitary 



By Legisla- 
tive Com- 
mittee of 
National 
Committee 
on Physical 
Education 



190 



College Teaching 



school buildings, playgrounds, and athletic fields and the equipment 
thereof; and such other means as may be conducive to these pur- 
poses. 



Poor type 
of physical 
education 
in second- 
ary schools 
intensifies 
problem in 
the college 



An analysis of these several authoritative and more or 
less official documents indicates very clearly a unanimity 
as to scope and aims of physical education, for they all 
seek to promote and conserve, in the broadest sense of the 
term, the health of the nation. 

The problem of physical education in the college is in- 
tensified by the fact that freshmen come to their chosen 
institutions with a variety of experience in physical train- 
ing, but unfortunately this experience is, too often, either 
inadequate or ineffective. The natural physical training of 
the earlier age periods produces whatever neuro-muscular 
development, whatever neuro-muscular coordination, what- 
ever neuro-muscular control, and whatever other organic 
growth, development, or functional perfection is achieved 
by the young human concerned. A program of physical 
training wisely planned with reference to infancy, child- 
hood, and early youth would include types of exercises, 
play, games, and sports, that would perfect the neuro- 
muscular and other functions far more completely than is 
commonly accomplished through the natural unsupervised 
and undirected physical training of those early age periods 
either in city or in rural communities. The force of mod- 
ern habits of life has led to the destruction of those natural 
habits of work, play, and recreation that gave a proportion 
of our forebears a fairly complete natural program of physi- 
cal exercise during the plastic or formative periods of 
life. As a result, many students reach college nowadays 
with stunted growths and with poorly developed, poorly 
trained, or poorly controlled neuro-muscular equipment. 
Some of these matriculates are physically weak. They 
lack alertness; their response is slow. Others are awkward 
and muscularly inefficient, though their physical growth is 
objectively — height and weight — normal or even above 
normal. 



Physical Education 191 



The College Department faces these problems through 
special provisions made for the purpose of supplying a be- 
lated neuro-muscular training to such cases. It often hap- 
pens that successful training along these lines is possible 
only through mdividual instruction of a most elementary 
sort, takmg the student through simple exercises that ought 
to have been a part of his experience in early childhood 

For the same reasons that are stated above, the College individual 
Department of Physical Training finds it necessary to con- T^'^' 
cern itself with individual students who need special atten- -gmeTt 
tion directed to specified organs or groups of organs whose department 
training or care could have been accomplished ordinarilv °^ P^^ysicai 
far better at an earlier period. These students present '"""'"" 
problems of posture, lung capacity, and regional weak- 
ness. 

The College Department of Physical Training finds also Supervision 
a significant opportunity and an urgent duty in the fact o^^^^ietics 
that various types of physical exercise are intimately asso- tSn addl^' 
ciated with social, ethical, and moral consequences. No [tYprobiem 
other human activity gives the same opportunity for the 
development of a social spirit and personal ethical stand- 
ards as do play, games, and sports of children and adoles- 
cents. Unsupervised, these activities degenerate and bring 
unmoral practices and an anti-social spirit in their wake. 

Because of these opportunities and obligations. College 
Departments of Physical Training are including within 
their programs and jurisdictions more and more supervision 
of college athletics, and assume an ever increasing role 
in the direction of recreational activities of college stu- 
dents. It remains true, however, that these influences of 
supervised play and athletics should operate long before 
the individual reaches college age. 

The intense interest of college students in athletic com- 
petitions, united with the opportunity which athletics off'er 
for social and character training, has decided a number of 
colleges to turn athletic training over to the Department 
of Physical Training. This preparation for the supreme 
physical and physiological test must be built upon a founda- 



192 



College Teaching 



Organiza- 
tion of De- 
partment of 
Physical 
Education 



tion of safe and sound health. There is no more fitting 
place in the collegiate organization for these athletic and 
recreational activities. 

The college departments that cover this field in whole 
or in part are known by various names. We have depart- 
ments of Physical Training; of Physical Education; of 
Physical Culture; of Hygiene; of Physiology and Physical 
Education; of Hygiene and Physical Education; of Physical 
Training and Athletics, and so on. 

An analysis of these college departments shows that they 
all concern themselves with much the same important ob- 
jects, although they differ in their lines of greater emphasis. 
We find, too, that in some colleges the department includes 
activities that form separate, though related departments in 
other institutions. 

The activities of such departments fall into three large 
divisions, each one of which has its logical subdivisions. 
One of these large divisions may be called the division of 
health examination. It has to do with the health examina- 
tion of the individual student and with the health advice 
that is based on and consequent to such examination. The 
second division has to do with health instruction cover- 
ing the subject matter of physical training. The third 
division covers directed experiences in right living and the 
formation of health habits, and includes the special ac- 
tivities noted above. 

We often refer to the first division noted above as the 
division of medical inspection, physical examination, or 
health examination; to the second as hygiene, physiology, 
biology, or bacteriology; and to the third as gymnastics, 
physical exercise, organized play, recreation, athletics, or 
narrowly as physical training. 

The prime purpose of collegiate physical training, then, 
is to furnish the student such information and such habit- 
forming experiences as will lead him to formulate and prac- 
tice an intelligent policy of personal health control and an 
intelligent policy of community health control. The col- 
lateral and special objects of physical training vary with the 



Physical Education 193 

individual student under the influence of his previous train- 
ing and his present and future life plans. 

The Collegiate Department of Physical Training is pri- 
marily concerned, therefore, with the acquisition and con- 
servation of human health — mental, moral, and physical 
health. Because of his physical training, the college man 
should live longer; he should meet his environments obli- 
gations more successfully; he should be better able to pro- 
tect himself from, and better able to avoid, injury; he should 
lose less time on account of injury, poor health, and sick- 
ness; he should get well more rapidly when he is sick; 
he should be better able to recover his health and 
strength after injury or illness; and he should therefore 
give to society a fuller, happier, and more useful life. 

Such a department is concerned secondarily with (a) 
those special defects of earlier physical training that bring 
to college, students in need of neuro-muscular training 
and organic development, ib) with social, ethical, and 
character training, and (c) with the conditioning and spe- 
cial training of students for athletic competition or for 
other extraordinary physical and physiological demands. 

In the light pf the above statements, the objects of physi- 
cal training may be summarized as follows: 

I. The fundamental and ever present object of physical 
training is the acquisition and conservation of vigorous, 
enduring health, the summated effect of perfect functions in 
each and every organ of the human body. 

II. The special objects of physical training vary in their 
needs for emphasis at different age periods and under the 
changing stresses of life. Among the more important of 
these special objects are: 

(T) General, normal growth. An object in the early age 
periods. 

(2) Neuro-muscular development, coordination, and con- 

trol. Accomplished best in early age periods. 

(3) Special organic (anatomical and functional) develop- 

ment. Optimum period in childhood and youth. 



194 College Teaching 

(4) Social, ethical, and moral training. Character build- 

ing. Objects more easily secured in childhood and 
youth. 

(5) Preparation for some supreme physical and physio- 

logical test; e. g., athletic competition, police or fire 
service, military service. Most desirable training 
period in late youth and early maturity. Must de- 
pend, however, on the effects of earlier physical 
training. 

(6) The formation of health habits. Best accomplished in 

early life but commonly an important function of 
the College Department of Physical Training. 

(7) The conservation of health. Always an object, but 

more particularly so in the middle and later life. 

THE MEDICAL EXAMINATION 

In the American college of today, the student's first 
contact with the Department of Physical Training is very 
likely to be in the examining room. In the College of the 
City of New York ^ it has become the established custom 
to require a satisfactory health examination before ad- 
mitting the applicant to registration as a student in the 
college. Entering classes are enrolled in this institution 
at the beginning of each term, and in each list of appli- 
cants there are always a few to whom admission is de- 
nied because of unsatisfactory health conditions. 

In each case in which admission is denied because of un- 
satisfactory health, the individual is given careful advice 
relative to his present and probable future condition, and 
every effort is made to help the applicant plan his life 
so that he may be able at a later time to enter the college. 
Of course, it occasionally happens that applicants are 
found with serious and incurable health defects which make 
it very improbable that they will ever be in condition to 
attempt a college education. 

1 The construction of this chapter on the teaching of physical 
training is based very largely upon the experiences and organ- 
ization of the Department of Hygiene in the College of the City 
of New York. 



Physical Education 



195 



The health examination of the student should cover those scope of 



facts in his family and personal heahh history that are 
likely to have a bearing upon his present or future health, 
and the examination should include a very careful in- 
vestigation of the important organs of his body. This ex- 
amination calls for expert medical and dental service. 

The most useful examiner is he who is at the same time 
a teacher. Nowhere else is a better or even an equally good 
opportunity given to drive home impressively, and some- 
times dramatically, important lessons in individual hygiene. 
Through a pair of experimental lenses placed by his ex- 
aminer before his hitherto undiscovered visual brain cells, 
the young student who has had poor vision and has never 
known it, may obtain, for the first time, a glimpse of the 
beauty in his surroundings. 

The dental examiner who finds bad teeth and explains 
bad teeth to the student whose health is being, or may be, 
destroyed by such teeth, has before him all the elements 
necessary for very effective health instruction. 

The health examination should be a personal and pri- 
vate affair. It is often best not to have even a recorder 
present. The student should understand that whatever 
passes between him and his examiner is entirely confiden- 
tial. 

All advice given a student at these examinations should be 
followed up if it is the kind of advice that can be followed 
up. If the advice involves the attention of a dentist or 
treatment by a physician, time should be allowed for mak- 
ing arrangements and for securing the treatment neces- 
sary. After that time has elapsed the student should be 
called upon to report with information from his parent 
or guardian, or from his. family health adviser, indicating 
what has been done or will be done for the betterment 
of the conditions for which the advice was originally given. 
In the hands of a tactful examiner — one who is a teacher 
as well as an examiner — the student and parent, particu- 
larly the parent, will cooperate effectively in this plan 
for the development of health habits of the student. Less 



health ex- 
amination 



How to con- 
duct health 
examination 



196 College Teaching 

than three tenths of one per cent of the parents of City 
College students refuse to secure special health attention for 
their boys when we do so advise. 

These examinations should be repeated at reasonable in- 
tervals throughout the entire college course. We have 
found in the College of the City of New York that a repe- 
tition every term is none too frequent. Visual defects, 
dental defects, evidences of heart trouble and signs of 
pulmonary tuberculosis, and other defects, not infrequently 
arise in cases of individuals who have been seen several times 
before without showing any evidence of poor health. It is 
hoped that these repeated examinations may lead to the 
continuation of such habits of bodily care in postgraduate 
years. 

A careful and concise record must be made covering the 
mstin facts of each examination and of each conference 
with the student subsequent to his examination. These 
memoranda enable the examiner at each later examination 
to talk to the student with a knowledge of what has been 
found and what has been said and what has been done 
on preceding examinations, and on preceding follow-up 
conferences. As a result, the examiner-teacher is in posi- 
tion to be very much more useful not only because of sig- 
nificant facts before him concerning the student with whom 
he is talking, but also because of the greater confidence 
which the student will necessarily have in an examiner who 
is obviously interested in him and who possesses such an 
accurate record of his health history. 

These examinations should apply to every student in a 
college or a university, regardless of the division to which 
he belongs. The need for health instruction or for the 
establishment of health habits, in order that one may be 
physically trained for the exigencies of life, is not peculiar 
to any student age period or to any academic or technico- 
logical group, or to a college for men or a college for 
women. 

One of the dangers present in these college examinations 
is the tendency of the examiner to become more interested 



Physical Education 



197 



in the number of students examined and the number of 
diagnoses made than in the good influence he may have 
upon the heajth future of the student. 

Every " case " should be treated by the heahh examiner 
as if it were the first and only case on hand for the day. 
The student certainly classifies the examiner as the first 
and only one he has had that day. The examiner should 
plan to make every contact he has with a student a help to 
the student. 



HEALTH INSTRUCTION 

A second large division of physical training deals with 
health instruction. As has been pointed out above, the 
division of health examination produces a very important 
and very useful opportunity for individual health instruc- 
tion. 

Hygiene, however, is presented commonly to groups of Content 
students in class organization rather than individually, instruction 
Anatomy, physiology, psychology, bacteriology, pathology, 
general hygiene, individual hygiene, group hygiene, and 
intergroup hygiene are sciences, or combinations of sciences, 
from which physical training draws its facts. These 
sciences and those phases of economics and sociology that 
have to do with the economic and social influences of 
health and disease, of physical efficiency and physical de- 
generacy, supply physical training with its general subject 
matter. 

Health instruction, then, as a part of physical training, 
draws its content from these sources. A logical plan of 
class instruction would, therefore, include the elements of 
anatomy, physiology, psychology, bacteriology (and general 
parasitology), pathology, economics, and sociology, as a 
basis for a more complete presentation of the facts of gen- 
eral hygiene, individual hygiene, group hygiene, and inter- 
group hygiene. 

The most satisfactory presentation of these subjects in- Method of 
volves the grouping of students into small classes, the em- struction 



198 College Teaching 

ployment of laboratory methods, the use of reference libra- 
ries, and the assignment of problems for investigation 
and study, with a general group discussion of these 
problems. 

Unfortunately, college classes are large and the number 
of teachers employed in the department of physical train- 
ing, or in those departments from which physical training 
draws its science and its philosophy, is small, so that it is 
impractical to plan to give this instruction to small groups 
of students covering this range of subject matter. 

As a result, the lecture method with its obvious defects 
and shortcomings is the common medium for the health 
instruction of college students organized into classes. The 
more intimate and detailed instruction in these subjects is 
is secured in special courses and in professional schools. 

In the College of the City of New York, we expect that 
students who come to us from high schools and prepara- 
tory schools have had the elements of anatomy and physi- 
ology either in courses on those subjects or in courses in 
biology.^ Our health instruction, therefore, has been de- 
veloped along the lines of lectures on general hygiene, in- 
dividual hygiene, group hygiene, and intergroup hygiene 
running through the four terms of the freshman and sopho- 
more years. 

These lectures are given in periods of from ten to fifteen 
minutes each, preceding class work in various forms of 
physical exercise. They are often called " floor talks." 
The shortness of the presentation favors vigor of address; 
necessitates a concise organization of material and a clarity 
and brevity of statement; and is more likely to command 
student attention and concentration. It has, however, its 
obvious defects. In these lectures persistent effort is made 
to influence the daily habits of the student. The lecture 
content is selected with reference to the practical problems 
of the daily life of the individual and of the community 
of which he is a part. It is obvious that the amount of 

1 This precollegiate instruction is, unfortunately, uniformly poor 
in so far as it relates to health. 



Physical Education 199 



time devoted to the presentation of the subject matter is 
utterly inadequate. 

Short written tests are given once each month, and a 
longer written test is given at the end of each term, These 
examinations stimulate the student to organize his informa- 
tion and make it more completely his own property. The 
classes are too large ^ and the instructional force relatively 
too small to permit the assignment of references, presenta- 
tion of reports, and the conduct of investigations. 

Further instruction in physiology and bacteriology is se- 
cured in this institution through elective courses open to 
students in their junior and senior years. These elective 
courses, however, are not planned primarily for the health 
education of the student, but rather for his partial prepara- 
tion as a teacher of physical training, a student of medicine, 
a scientific specialist, or for public health work. 

HEALTH-FORMING ACTIVITIES OF THE DEPART- 
MENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

The third division of activities contains the health-habit- 
forming influences covered by the Department of Physical 
Training. These influences are formed partly in connec- 
tion with the follow-up activities associated with the health 
examinations and advice noted above; partly through im- 
pressions made by way of individual and class instruction 
concerning the laws of health (also noted above) ; and 
partly through systematic class work, group work, and in- 
dividual work in gymnastics, organized recreation, games, 
play, and athletics. 

The student who has been given a health examination 
each term throughout his college career will be very likely 
to continue the practice as a habit after graduation. This 
habit will follow more surely if the examiner has been a 
real health teacher and not a perfunctory recorder of ob- 
servations made upon the student. A lack of sympathy 

1 The present enrollment in these classes, February, 1919, is ap- 
proximately 1500. 



200 



College Teaching 



Place of 
physical 
exercise in 
program for 
physical 
education 



Class work 
in physical 
exercise 



and tact may easily prejudice the student against the ex- 
amination. 

The student who has been led regularly to care for de- 
fects of one sort or another; whose contact with his ex- 
aminer-teacher in conferences following up the advice that 
has been given at the time of examination has been ac- 
companied by the right sort of explanation and mutual 
understanding, will be more likely to continue to exercise 
that sort of care for the welfare of his body after he is 
no longer under the influence of the college. 

The student who has seen the application of class health 
talks to his everyday problems is likely to be influenced to 
the practice of consequent health habits, particularly if 
those short lectures serve to correlate his various habit- 
forming experiences while in college. 

And finally, the student who is brought into contact with 
regular systematic exercise may, if the exercise is attract- 
ive and interesting, achieve a health habit that will be 
carried out into his postgraduate life. 

The existence of the Department of Physical Training 
would be amply justified if its influence upon the health 
and vigor of the student were limited to the period of his 
stay in college. The full success of this department, how- 
ever, like that of all other college departments, must be 
measured by its influence upon the life of the student after 
he has left college. The formation of lasting health habits 
is, therefore, the most important object of this department. 

Regular appropriate physical exercise is one of our most 
important health habits. It is perhaps safe to say that for 
the average individual it is the most important health habit. 
This is true because of its intimate and impressive influence 
upon all the fundamental organic functions of the body. 
Physical exercise in the American college is provided either 
as organized class work in the gymnasium, or by means 
of voluntary recreational opportunities, or through ath- 
letics. 

Class work may include: marching, mass drills with or 
without light apparatus, work on heavy apparatus, games. 



Physical Education 



201 



dancing, swimming, and track and field work. This class 
work may be indoors or outdoors, depending on the season 
or climate. 

Voluntary recreational opportunities are offered through 
free mass drills open to all students who may desire to take 
them regularly or irregularly; through open periods for ap- 
paratus work; and through facilities and space for games, 
swimming, mass athletics, and so on. 

Competitive athletics are typical of the American col- 
lege. Theoretically, athletics are open to all students. 
Practically, in many of our colleges athletics are made 
available only to the student with leisure time and excep- 
tional physique. Consistent effort is being made today by 
college authorities to provide opportunities for intramural 
(interclass, intergroup, and mass) athletics for the whole 
student body; at the same time preserving the desirable 
features of the more specialized intercollegiate competitions. 

Physical exercise in these various forms has its imme- 
diate and valuable influence upon the health condition of the 
individual student, if taken in sufl&cient quantity. It has its 
lasting and very much more important influence in those 
cases in which physical exercise becomes a habit. It has, 
therefore, become the increasing concern of the college 
teacher of physical training to develop activities in physical 
exercise that the student may use after graduation. Teachers 
of physical training have become more and more impressed 
with the importance of interesting exercise, not only because 
interesting exercise is more likely to become habitual exer- 
cise, but also because exercise that is accompanied by the 
play spirit, by happiness and joy, is physiologically and 
therefore healthfully of very much more value to the in- 
dividual. The relationship between cheerfulness and good 
health has become very firmly established through the 
scientific researches of the modern physiologist. We know 
that health habits which are associated with cheerfulness and 
happiness are bound to be more effective. 

The teacher of physical training finds opportunity for inci- 
dental and yet very important instruction leading to the 



Additional 
facilities 
for physi- 
cal exercise 



Becreation- 
al activities 
and ath- 
letics 



Inculcating 
habits of 
physical 
exercise 



202 



College Teaching 



Opportuni- 
ties for 
character 
building 



formation of fine qualities of character and fine standards 
of personal conduct. These opportunities arise constantly 
in the various general types of physical exercise found in the 
curriculum of the department of physical training. They 
are especially present in those activities in which compe- 
tition occurs, as in play, games, and athletics. These ac- 
tivities do not in themselves produce excellent qualities of 
character or high standards of conduct, but the teacher — 
whether he be called a coach or a trainer or a professor 
of hygiene — who sets a good example and who insists 
that every game played, and every contest, whether it be 
in a handball court between college chums or on the foot- 
ball field between college teams, shall be clean and fair, 
is using in the right way one of the opportunities present 
in the entire college life of the student, for the formation 
of fine character. 



SPECIAL EXERCISES FOR SPECIAL GROUPS 

In any given group of college students one will find a 
number of individuals in need of special or modified physi- 
cal exercise. These students may be grouped commonly 
under the following heads: (1) undeveloped, (2) bad pos- 
ture, (3) awkward, (4) originally weak, (5) deformed. 

Some of these students suffer from defects that are reme- 
diable. Some of these defects are due to poor physical 
training in earlier years. Some are the results of disease. 
All of them call for modified exercise and recreation. The 
fact that a student may fall into one of these groups in no 
way justifies the assumption that he is therefore no longer 
subject to the laws of health or to the need for rational 
health habits. As a matter of fact, such cases generally 
call for greater care and attention in the formulation and 
operation of a rational policy of right living. 

Every student physically able to go to college is physi- 
cally able to exercise. No student in attendance on recita- 
tions anywhere can offer a rational plea for exemption from 
exercise. The individual whose physical condition con- 



Physical Education 203 

traindicates all forms of exercise needs careful medical ad- 
vice and probably needs hospital or sanitarium treatment. 
College Departments of Physical Training are planning 
for cases in need of special or modified exercise, through the 
organization of special classes and through individual at- 
tention. In the College of the City of New York we at- 
tempt to group the weak students in a given class, into 
squads of four such students with a squad leader, a stu- 
dent. The awkward students are grouped in the same man- 
ner. The exercise of the cripple and the student with seri- 
ous organic weakness is individualized. These special in- 
dividualized cases are under the direct supervision of a 
physician on the staff. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDENTS FOR PRESCRIBED 
WORK IN THE COLLEGE COURSES 

In this college, organized, directed physical exercise as 
outlined above is covered in the division of physical train- 
ing, the division of recreation, and the division of athletics, 
all of which are subdivisions of the Department of Hygiene. 

The enrollment in the required classes in the division of 
Physical Training varies from thirty in the smaller classes 
to over two hundred in the larger. The total enrollment 
has been approximately eleven hundred each term for sev- 
eral years. These courses are required of all students dur- 
ing the first four collegiate terms. Each of these four 
courses requires three hours a week, distributed over two or 
into three periods, and credits the student with one half 
point toward graduation. This time allowance is, however, 
inadequate. 

The class organization in the division of the Department 
of Hygiene is based on a unit composed of five students. 
Each of these units or squads contains one student who is 
designated as the " leader " of that unit. 

Persistent effort is made to assign students of like physical 
development and needs to the same squads. In this man- 



204 



College Teaching 



A class 
period in 
physical 
exercise 



ner a single class of a hundred young men will have a 
graduation on the basis of proficiency which makes it pos- 
sible for the teacher to come very near to the rational ap- 
plication of exercise for the individual student. 

These units or squads are organized into divisions, each 
division being made up of four squads. Each division is 
under the supervision and instruction of a member of the 
departmental staff. In any given class, then, there is a 
regular instructor for each group of twenty students, and 
a student leader for each group of four students. The 
aim in this organization is to establish a relationship be- 
tween the instructor and his twenty students that will se- 
cure for him an intimate knowledge of each young man, 
relating to his physical training needs, general and special. 

A typical class period is made up of a short health 
talk, 10 minutes; a mass drill, 10 minutes; apparatus period, 
two changes, 20 minutes; and a play period, 15 minutes. 
If the health talk is not given the play period is lengthened. 

The mass drills referred to above are made up of drill in 
marching and in gymnastics with and without hand appa- 
ratus. These drills are graded within the term and from 
term to term so that a desirable variety is secured. They 
are devised for disciplinary, postural, developmental, and 
health purposes. During the progress of the drill the in- 
structors present inspect the posture and work of the stu- 
dents in their divisions. 

The apparatus periods referred to include work on the 
conventional pieces of gymnastic apparatus, with the addi- 
tion of chest weights, an indoor track, and a swimming 
pool. The squad organization for this work gives oppor- 
tunity for the development of student leadership which is 
often of extraordinary educational value to the individual 
boy. These periods, because of this squad organization, 
may be utilized for such special exercise emphasis as may 
be decided upon for any given group of students. It is 
here that special conditioning may be given those young 
men who are planning for liiilitary training or who need 
selected exercise for neuro-muscular development. 



Physical Education 205 

The play period in the regular class program is devoted 
largely to looser games that contain a predominating ele- 
ment of big muscle activities. Competition is a fairly 
constant factor. Here, again, our squad unit permits us 
to assign selected groups of students to special types of 
games. It is feasible, in this organization, to satisfy a need 
for the training that is furnished by highly organized games, 
fighting games, and by games and out-of-door events that 
develop special groups of muscles and special coordina- 
tions. 

A well-organized Collegiate Department of Physical Train- 
ing could cooperate very effectively with a Collegiate Depart- 
ment of Military Training. The squad organization in ap- 
paratus periods and in play periods offers the best pos- 
sible avenue for a successful emphasis of several of the 
very important phases of military physical training. 

The division of recreation in the Department of Hygiene Recreation- 
in the College of the City of New York, takes charge of in addition 
all recreational and athletic space and all recreational and *°^J®'^ 
intramural athletic activities in those periods of the day work 
in which regular class work does not take precedence. Stu- 
dents of all classes are admitted freely throughout their 
four collegiate years to these activities, and a studied ef- 
fort is made to increase their attractiveness as well as to 
secure from them their full social and character-training 
values. Such values depend to a very large degree upon the 
experienced supervision and direction given these activities. 
It does not follow that the creation of play opportunity is 
bound to produce good citizenship. The quality of the 
product depends upon the quality of the man or men in 
charge of the enterprise. 

The most important mission of the Recreational Division 
is its purpose to furnish the student lasting habits of play 
and recreation based upon the physical development he 
has secured in his earlier experiences in physical training. 
After all, one's physical training should begin at birth and 
continue throughout life. 

The Division of Athletic Instruction is concerned with 



206 College Teaching 

all plans for intercollegiate athletics, including organization, 
financing, training, coaching, and scheduling. All these ac- 
tivities are under the direction of members of the staff 
of the Department of Hygiene. There is no one employed 
in this relationship who is not a member of the staff. Con- 
stant attempts are made, in every reasonable way, to ac- 
complish the athletic ideals that have been set up by the 
National Collegiate Athletic Association. Clean play, 
honorable methods, and sportsmanly standards dominate 
the theory and practice of this athletic instruction and super- 
vision. 

The scope and content of physical training which I have 
attempted to present in these pages is brought out more 
clearly by the following announcement of the Department 
of Hygiene of the College of the City of New York: 

HYGIENE (1916-17) 

The Department of Hygiene is made up of the divisions of 
Physical Training, Physiology, Bacteriology, Health Examination, 
Recreational Instruction, and Athletics. 

Through these divisions the Department attempts to train young 
men for the exigencies of life through the establishment of enduring 
habits of health examination and repair, health information and 
individual and community protection against the agents that in- 
jure health and cause disease, and through the establishment of 
wise habits of daily life. 

This organization gives opportunity for the development of neg- 
lected organic and neuromuscular growth, coordination and con- 
trol; for the social, ethical, and moral training (character build- 
ing influences) inherent in wisely supervised athletic and recrea- 
tional experiences; and for the special conditioning that accom- 
panies training for severe physical and physiological competition and 
other tests. 

Finally, preparation may be secured for life work along certain 
lines of research, certain medical sciences, various phases of pub- 
lic health, physical training and social work. 

In addition, this Department is concerned with all those influ- 
ences within the College which affect the health of the student. 
Every reasonable eflfort is made to keep the institution safe and 
attractive to the clean, healthy individual. 



Physical Education 207 

Division of Physical Training 

1. Course One, 

(a) Lectures. " Some of the common causes of disease." 

(b) Physical Exercise. 
i. Graded mass drills. 

(a) Elementary drills are used in order to develop obedien-ce, 
alertness, and ready response to command, accurate execution, good 
posture and carriage and facility of control. 

(b) More advanced drills are given in which movements are 
made in response to commands. Strength, endurance, and coordina- 
tion are brought into play. 

ii. Apparatus work. Continuation of graded exercises for squads 

of five students each, 
iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and 

play, 
iv. Swimming. Each student is required to learn to swim with 

more than one variety of stroke. 
Prescribed. Freshman, first term; three hours a week; counts ^2. 

2. Course Two. 

(a) Lectures. " The carriers of disease." 
ib) Physical Exercise, 
i. Graded mass drills. Two-count movements. These drills are 
continuations of, but more advanced than those given in the 
preceding term. 
ii. Apparatus work. Continuation of graded exercises for squads 

of five, 
iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and 

play, 
iv. Swimming. Each student is required to develop endurance in 
swimming. 
Prerequisite: Hygiene 1. 

Prescribed. Freshman, second term; three hours a week; 
counts %. 

3. Course Three. 

(a) Lectures. " The contributory causes and carriers of dis- 
ease." 

(b) Physical Exercise. 

i. Graded mass drills. Four-count movements. More advanced 

work, 
ii. Apparatus work. Continuation of graded exercises for squads 

of five, 
iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and 

play. . 



208 College Teaching 



iv. Swimming. Diving, rescue and resuscitation of the drowning. 
Prerequisite: Hygiene 2. 
Prescribed. Sophomore, first term; three hours a week; counts 

1/2. 

4. Course Four. 

(a) Lectures. " Defenses against poor heahh and disease." 

(b) Physical Exercise. 

i. Advanced graded mass drills. Eight-count movements, 
ii. Advanced graded apparatus work. For squads of five, 
iii. Selected, graded, recreative indoor and outdoor games and 

play, 
iv. Swimming. Advanced continuation of requirements outlined 
for Courses 2 and 3. 
Prerequisite: Hygiene 3. 

Prescribed. Sophomore, second term; three hours a week; 
counts V2- 

Modified Course. 

In each of the above required courses provision is made for those 
students whose organic condition may permanently disqualify them 
for the regular scheduled work. This special work is under the 
immediate direction of a medical member of the Staff. 

5. Intermediate Physical Training. 

This course is planned to supply the student with such organic 
development and efficiency as will enable him to demonstrate suc- 
cessfully as a teacher various type exercises for classes in elemen- 
tary and intermediate indoor and outdoor gymnastics, aquatics, games, 
play and athletics. 

Prerequisite: Hygiene 4. Three hours a week; counts V2. 

6. Advanced Physical Training. 

This course is a continuation of Course 5, and is designed for 
the physical equipment of teachers of more advanced physical work. 
Prerequisite: Hygiene 5. Three hours a week; counts %. 

7. Class Management. 

This course supplies the practical instruction and experience 
needed for the training of special teachers in the management of 
elementary and intermediate classes in various forms of physical ex- 
ercise. 

Prerequisite: Hygiene 6 and 32. Fall term, three hours a 
week; counts 1. 

8. Class Management. 

This course is a continuation of Course 7. It is planned to give 
a training in the management of more advanced classes. 



i 



Physical Education 209 

Prerequisite: Hygiene 7. Spring term, three hours a week; 
counts 1. 

9. Control of Emergencies and First Aid to the Injured. 

This course supplies instruction concerning the management and 
protective care of common emergencies. The instruction is prac- 
tical and rational. It covers such emergencies as: sprains, frac- 
tures, dislocations, wounds, bruises, sudden pain, fainting, epileptic 
attacks, unconsciousness, drowning, electric shock, and so on. 

Prerequisite: Hygiene 32. Fall term, two hours a week; counts 1. 

10. Theory and Practice of Individual Instruction in Hygiene and 
in Departmental Sanitation. 

Students taking this subject will be given practical first hand 
experience of special use to teachers; (a) in connection with health 
examination, inspection, conference, consultation, and follow up serv- 
ice carried on in the departmental examining room; and (b) in 
connection with the sanitary supervision carried on by the depart- 
ment. 

Prerequisites or Co-requisites: Hygiene 32, 41 and 48. Spring 
term, six hours a week in two periods of three hours each; 
counts 2. 

Division of Physiology 

32. Elements of Physiology. 

This subject deals with the general concepts of the science of 
physiology, the chemical and physical conditions which underlie 
and determine the action of the individual organs, and the integra- 
tive relationship of the parts of the body. 

One lecture, one recitation and two laboratory hours a week; 
counts 3. 

33. Special Physiology. 

A study of the fundamental facts of physiology and methods of 
investigation. The aim is to give a complete study of certain topics: 
the phenomena of contraction, conduction, sense perception and the 
various mechanisms of general metabolism. Laboratory work is 
arranged to show the methods of physiologic experimentation and 
to emphasize the necessity of using care and accuracy in their ap- 
plication. 

Spring term, two lectures and three laboratory hours a week; 
counts 3. 

34. Physiology of Nutrition. 

The aim of this subject is to study broadly the metabolism of the 
human body. In the development of this plan the following topics 



210 College Teaching 

will be considered: the food requirements of man, the nutritive 
history of the physiologic ingredients, the principles oi dietetics 
and their application to daily living. 

Fall term, two lectures and three laboratory hours a week; 
counts 3. 

Division of Bacteriology 

41. General Bacteriology. 

Lectures, recitations and laboratory work introducing the stu- 
dent to the technique of bacteriology and to the more important 
facts about the structure and function of bacteria. Special ap- 
plications of bacteriology to agriculture and the industries are dis- 
cussed, and brief references are made to the activities of allied 
microbes, the yeasts and molds. The general relations of bacteria 
to disease and the principles of immunity and its control are in- 
cluded. 

One lecture, one recitation and four laboratory hours a week; 
counts 3. 

42. Bacteriology of Foods. 

This includes the bacteriologic examination of water, sewage, 
air, milk, the various food products together with the methods 
used in the standardization of disinfectants, a detailed study of 
yeast and bacterial fermentation and their application to the in- 
dustries. Numerous trips to industrial plants will be made. 

Prerequisite: Hygiene 41. 

Fall term, one lecture and six laboratory hours a week ; counts 3. 

43. Bacteriology of Pathogenic Micro-organisms. 

This subject is devoted to the laboratory methods of biology 
as applied in the state and municipal boards of health. Practice 
will be given in the methods used for the diagnosis of diphtheria, 
tuberculosis, malaria, rabies, and other diseases caused by micro- 
organisms, together with a detailed study of the groups to which 
they belong. 

Prerequisite: Hygiene 41. 

Spring term, one lecture and six laboratory hours a week; 
counts 3. 

44. Potable and Industrial Water. 

Very few industries are independent of a water supply. No 
one is independent of the source of his drinking water. Water 
varies in its usefulness for definite purposes. 

This subject differentiates between various waters, takes them 
up from industrial and hygienic standpoints, considers softening, 
filtering, purifying and water analysis. 



Physical Education 211 

Work is divided into three groups. 

A. Industrial Water ) given in the Chemistry Depart- 

B. Potable Water ) ment. 

C. Water Bacteriology \ given in the Department of 
(microscopy of water) ) Hygiene. 

Municipal students may elect any or all of the three groups. 
Prerequisite: Chemistry 4 and Hygiene 41. Chemistry 9 is 
desirable. 
Spring term, seven hours a week; counts 3. 

48. Municipal Sanitation. 

Lectures, discussions and visits to public works of special im- 
portance. The principles which underlie a pure water supply and 
the means by which the wastes of the city, its sewage and garbage 
may be successfully disposed of, and the problems of pure milk 
and pure food supplies, the housing question with its special phase 
of ventilation and plumbing, and the methods by which a muni- 
cipal board of health is organized to fight tuberculosis and other 
specific diseases will be studied. 

Fall term, two lectures and one field trip a week; counts 3. 

49. Municipal Sanitary Inspection. 

Professor B and Bureau of Foods and Drugs, New 

York City Department of Health. 
The seminar work of this subject is done in the College and 
the field work in company with and under the direct supervision 
of an Inspector of the Department of Health of the City. The 
subject is limited to six students each semester, and is intended 
for those planning to go into this branch of the City's service. 
The qualifications will be based upon individuality, personality 
playing an important part. 

Prerequisite: Hygiene 41 and 48 and Chemistry 19. 
Spring term, two seminar hours, one recitation and one in- 
spection tour a week; counts 3. 

50. Research. 

Seniors who have completed satisfactorily a sufficient amount 
of work in the Department may be assigned some topic to serve 
as a basis for a thesis which will be submitted as credit for the 
work at its completion. The student will receive the advice of 
the instructor in the subject in which the research falls, but as 
much independent work as possible will be insisted upon. The 
purpose is to introduce the student into research methods, and 
also to foster independence. 



212 College Teaching 



Division of Health Examination 

I. Individual Instruction in Hygiene. 

This instruction is of a personal confidential character, and 
is given in the form of advice based upon medical history sup- 
plied by the individual, and upon medical and hygienic examina- 
tions and inspections of the individual. 

(a) Medical and hygienic history and examination. 

In this relationship with the student the Department attempts 
to secure such information concerning environmental and habit 
influences in the life of the student as may be used as a basis for 
supplying him with helpful advice concerning the organization 
of his policy of personal health control. The medical examina- 
tions are utilized for the purpose of finding remediable physical 
defects whose proper treatment may be added to the physiological ef- 
ficiency and therefore to the health possibilities of the student. 
Prescribed: freshman, sophomore, junior, senior and special stu- 
dents. Once each term. No credits. 

ib) Hygiene inspections. 

These inspections are applied in the mutual interest of personal, 
departmental and institutional hygiene. 
Prescribed: freshman and sophomore. 

(c) Conferences. 

All students who have been given personal hygienic or med- 
ical advice are required to report in conference by appointment 
in order that the advice may be followed up. 

All individuals found with communicable diseases are debarred 
from all classes until it is shown in conference that they are re- 
ceiving proper medical treatment, and that they may return to class 
attendance with safety to their comrades. 

All individuals found with remediable physical or hygienic de- 
fects are required to report in conference with evidence that the 
abnormal condition has been brought to the serious attention of the 
parent, guardian or family medical or hygienic adviser. Students 
failing to report as directed may be denied admission to all classes. 

n. Medical and Sanitary Supervision. 

(a) Sanitary supervision. 

An " Advisory Committee on Hygiene and Sanitation " with 
the Professor of Hygiene as Chairman, has been appointed by the 
President. This committee has been instructed to " inquire from 
time to time into all our institutional influences which are likely 
to aff"ect the health of the student and instructor, and to make 
such reports with recommendations to the President as may seem 
wise and expedient." 

(b) A medical examination is required of all applicants for 



Physical Education 213 

admission to the College. Approval of the Medical Examiner must 
be secured before registration is permitted. 

(c) Medical consultation. 

Open to all students. (Optional.) 

id) Medical examination of Athletes. 

Required of all students before admission to athletic training 
and repeated at intervals during the training season. 

(e) Treatment. 

Emergency treatment is the only treatment attempted by the 
Department. Such treatment will be applied only for the purpose 
of protecting the individual until he can secure the services he 
selects for that purpose. 

(/) Conferences. 

(See "c" under I.) 

ig) Laboratory: The Department Laboratories are equipped 
for bacteriological and other analyses. The water in the swim- 
ming pool is examined daily. The laboratory service is utilized to 
identify disease carriers, and in every other reasonable way to 
assist in the protection of student health. 

Division of Recreational Instruction 

Liberal provision is made by the College for voluntary recre- 
tional activities indoors and outdoors during six days of the 
week and throughout vacation periods. Emphasis is laid on recre- 
ation as a health habit and a means of social training. 

Division of Athletics 

(1) Athletic Supervision. 

Three organizations are concerned: 

(a) The Faculty Athletic Committee, which has to do with 
all athletic activities that involve academic relationships. 

ib) The Athletic Council, a committee of the Department of 
Hygiene, charged with the supervision of all business activities 
connected with student athletic enterprises. 

(c) The Athletic Association of the Student Body. 

(2) Athletic Instruction. 

The Department utilizes various intramural and extramural 
athletic activities for the purpose of securing a further influence 
on the promotion of health habits, the development of physical 
power, and the establishment and maintenance of high stand- 
ards of sportsmanly conduct on part of the individual and the 

group. 

At present the schedule includes the following sports: base- 



214 College Teaching 

ball, basket ball, track and field, swimming and water polo, tennis, 
soccer foot ball, and hand ball. 

Thomas Andrew Storey, M.D. 

College of the City of New York 

[It was hoped that it would be possible to include with Professor 
Storey's chapter a number of forms and photographs calculated to 
serve as aids in the organization and conduct of a College Depart- 
ment of Hygiene. As Professor Storey's work is very distinctive, 
other institutions which are striving to organize effective depart- 
ments of physical education would have found his experiences as 
graphically depicted in these photographs and summed up in these 
charts extremely helpful. Unfortunately it has proved impossible 
to print them here on account of limitations of space, but all who 
are interested in securing further information can obtain these val- 
uable guides in the introductory stages of the inauguration of a 
Department of Hygiene by applying to the College of the City of 
New York. Editor.] 



PART THREE 

The Social Sciences 

CHAPTER 

X The Teaching of Economics 

Frank A. Fetter 

XI The Teaching of Sociology 

A. J. Todd 

XII The Teaching of History 

A. American History 

H. W. Elson 

B. Modern European History 

Edward Krehbiel 

XIII The Teaching of Political Science 

Charles Grove Haines 

XIV The Teaching of Philosophy 

Frank Thilly 

XV The Teaching of Ethics 

Henry Neumann 

XVI The Teaching of Psychology 

Robert S. Woodworth 

XVII The Teaching of Education 

A. Teaching the History of Education 

Herman H. Home 

B. Teaching Educational Theory 

Frederick E, Bolton 



X 
THE TEACHING OF ECONOMICS 

EVEN though economics be so defined as to exclude a Conception 
large part oi the tield oi the social sciences, its scope economics 
is still very broad. Economics is less homogeneous in its 
content, is far less clearly defined, than is any one of the 
natural sciences. A very general definition of economics 
is: The study of men engaged in making a living. More 
fully expressed, economics is a study of men exercising 
their own powers and making use of their environment 
for the purposes of existence, of welfare, and of enjoyment. 
Within such a broad definition of economics is found room 
for various narrower conceptions. To mention only the 
more important of these we may distinguish individual 
economics, domestic economics, business economics, gov- 
ernmental economics (public finance), and political (or 
national) economics. Any one of these subjects may be 
approached and treated primarily either with regard to its 
more immediate financial, material, acquisitive aspects, or 
to its more far-reaching social, psychical, and welfare as- 
pects. These various ideas appear and reappear most con- 
fusingly in economic literature. 

The aims that different students and teachers have in the 
pursuit of economics are as varied as are the conceptions 
of its nature. The teaching aims are, indeed, largely de- 
termined by those conceptions. Moreover, the teaching 
aims are modified by still other conditions, such as the 
environment of the college and its constituency, and such 
as the temperament, business experience, and scholarly 
training of the teacher. We may distinguish broadly 
three aims: the vocational, the civic, and the cultural. 

The vocational aim is the most elementary and most 
usual. Xenophon's treatise on domestic " economy " was 
the nucleus from which have grown all the systematic 
formulations of economic principles. Vocational econom- 

217 



218 College Teaching 

ics is the economics of the craftsman and of the shop. 
Every practical craft and art has its economic aspect, 
which concerns the right and best use of labor and 
valuable materials to attain a certain artistic, mechani- 
cal, or other technical end in its particular field. 
Economics is not mere technology, which has to 
do with the mastery of materials and forces to at- 
tain any material end. Vocational economics, however, 
modifies and determines technical practice, which, in the 
last analysis, is subject to the economic rule. The economic 
engineer should construct not the best bridge that is pos- 
sible, mechanically considered, but the best possible or 
advisable for the purpose and with the means at hand. 
The economic agriculturist should not produce the largest 
crop possible, but the crop that gives the largest addi- 
tional value. The rapidly growing recognition of the im- 
portance, in all technical training, of cultivating the ability 
to take the economic view has led to the development of 
household economics in connection with the teaching of 
cooking, sewing, decorating, etc.; of the economics of farm 
management to supplement the older technical courses in 
natural science, crops, and animal husbandry; of the 
economics of factory management in connection with 
mechanical engineering; of the economics of railway loca- 
tion in connection with certain phases of civil engineer- 
ing; and many more such special groupings and formula- 
tions of economic principles with reference to particular 
vocations and industries. 

The ancient and the medieval crafts and mysteries un- 
doubtedly had embodied in their maxims, proverbs, tradi- 
tional methods, and teachings, many economic principles 
suitable to their comparatively simple and unchanging con- 
ditions. The rapid changes that have occurred, especially 
in the last half century, in the natural sciences and in 
the practical arts have rendered useless much of this 
wisdom of the fathers. Recently there has been a belated 
and sudden awakening to the need of studying, consciously 
and systematically, the economic aspects of the new 



The Teaching of Economics 219 

dynamic forces and industrial conditions. Hence the al- 
most dramatic appearance of vocational, or technical, 
economics under such names as " scientific management " 
and the " economics of engineering." Viewed in this per- 
spective such a development appears to be commendable 
and valuable in its main purpose. Unfortunately, some, 
if not all, of the adherents of this new cult of " economy " 
and " efficiency " fail to appreciate how very restricted and 
special it is, compared with the whole broad economic 
field. 

The civic aim in teaching economics is to fit the student 
to perform the duties of a citizen. We need not attempt 
to prove here that a large proportion of public questions 
are economic in nature, and that in a democracy a wise 
decision on these questions ultimately depends on an in- 
telligent public opinion and not merely on the knowledge 
possessed by a small group of specialists. 

The civic conception of economics, seen from one point 
of view, shows little in common with the vocational con- 
ception. Yet from another point of view it may be looked 
upon as the vocational conception " writ large " and is 
the art of training men to be citizens in a republic. Good 
citizenship involves an attitude of interest, a capacity to 
form judgments on public economic issues, and, if need 
be, to perform efficiently public functions of a legislative, 
executive or judicial nature. The state-supported colleges 
usually now recognize very directly their obligation to pro- 
vide economic training with the civic aim, and, in some 
cases, even to require it as a part of the work for a college 
degree. Often also is found the thought that it is the 
duty of the student while obtaining an education at public 
expense, to take a minimum of economics with the civic 
aim even if he regards it as in no way to his individual 
advantage or if it has in his case no direct vocational bear- 
ings. In the privately endowed institutions this policy may 
be less clearly formulated, but it is hardly less actively 
practiced. Indeed, the privately endowed institutions have 
been recognizing more and more fully their fiduciary and 



220 



College Teaching 



Evaluations 
of aims of 
teaching 
economics 
in college 



public nature. Their public character is involved in their 
charters, in their endowments, in their exemption from 
taxation, and in their essential educational functions. The 
proudest pages in their history are those recording their 
services to the state. ^ 

The cultural aim in economics is to enable the student 
to comprehend the industrial world about him. It aims 
to liberate the mind from ignorance and prejudice, giving 
him insight into, and appreciation of, the industrial world 
in which he lives. In this aspect it is a liberal study. 
Economics produces in some measure this cultural re- 
sult, even when it is studied primarily with the vocational 
or with the civic aim. But in vocational economics the 
choice of materials and the mode of treatment are deliber- 
ately restricted by the immediate utilitarian purposes; and 
in economic teaching with a civic purpose there is the con- 
tinual temptation to arouse the sympathies for an im- 
mediate social program and to take a view limited by the 
contemporary popular interest in specific proposals for re- 
form. Economics at its highest level is the search for truth. 
It has its place in any system of higher education as has 
pure natural science, apart from any immediate or, so far 
as we may know, any possible, utilitarian application. It 
is a disinterested philosophy of the industrial world. 
Though it may not demonstrably be a means to other use- 
ful things, it is itself a worthy end. It helps to enrich the 
community with the immaterial goods of the spirit, and it 
yields the psychic income of dignity and joy in the in- 
dividual and national life. And as a final appeal to any 
doubting Philistine it may be said that just as the cult 
of pure science is necessary to the continual and most ef- 
fective progress in the practical arts, so the study of 
economics on the philosophical plane surely is necessary to 
the highest and most lasting results in the application of 
economics to the arts and to civic life. 

1 See article by Charles E. Persons, on Teaching the Introductory 
Course in Economics, in Quarterly Journal of Economics Vol. 
XXXI, November, 1916, for a strong presentation of this civic 
ideal in economic study. 



The Teaching of Econoimcs 221 

The differences in aims set forth in this paragraph re- 
sult in much of the futile discussion in recent years re- 
garding methods of teaching. Enthusiastic innovators have 
debated at cross purposes about teaching methods as if 
they were to be measured by some absolute standard of 
pedagogic values, not recognizing that the chief differences 
of views as to teaching methods were rooted in the differing 
aims. This truth will reappear at many points in the fol- 
lowing discussion. " What will you have," quoth the Gods, 
" pay the price and take it." 

The place assigned to economics in the college curriculum fcono^ics 
in respect to the year in which the student is admitted to in the 
its study is very different in various colleges. In the last currSuium 
investigation of the subject it appeared that the first 
economics course might be taken first 

in the freshman year in 14 per cent of cases, 

in the sophomore year in 31 per cent of cases, 

in the junior year in 42 per cent of cases, 

in the senior year in 13 per cent of cases.^ 
Among those institutions giving an economic course in the 
freshman year are some small and some large institu- 
tions (some of the latter being Stanford, New York Uni- 
versity, Pennsylvania, Bryn Mawr, and the state universi- 
ties of California, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, Colorado, 
Utah). Frequently the elementary course given to fresh- 
men is in matter and method historical and descriptive, 
rather than theoretical, and is planned to precede a more 
rigid course in the principles.^ 

The plan of beginning economics in the sophomore year 
is the mode among the state universities and larger colleges, 
including nearly all of the larger institutions that do not 
begin the subject in the freshman year. This group in- 
cludes Yale, Hopkins, Chicago, Northwestern, Mount 

1 Compiled by the writer from data in the report of the committee 
appointed by the conference on the teaching of elementary econom- 
ics, 1909; Journal of Political Economy, November, 1911, Vol. 19, 
pages 760-789. 

2 See page 767 of the committee report cited above. 



222 College Teaching 

Holyoke, Wellesley, Vassar, and (after 1919) Princeton. 

The group of institutions beginning economics in the 
junior year is the largest, but consists mostly of small col- 
leges having some advanced economics courses, but no more 
than can be given in the senior year. It contains, besides, 
a few colleges of arts which maintain a more strictly pre- 
scribed curriculum for underclassmen (freshmen and 
sophomores), such as Dartmouth, Columbia, Smith, and 
Simmons. It should be observed also that in a great many 
institutions where economics may be taken by some students 
in the first two years, it is in fact scheduled as late as 
junior or senior year in the prescribed courses of students 
in special departments such as agriculture, engineering, 
and law. This statement applies doubtless to many 
thousands of technical students.^ 

In view of these divergencies in practice we must hesi- 
tate to declare that the subject should be begun at pre- 
cisely this or that point in the college course. These 
differences, to be sure, are in many cases the result of 
accidental factors in the college curriculum, and often 
have been determined by illogical departmental rivalries 
within the faculty rather than by wise and disinterested 
educators studying the merits of the case. But in large part 
these differences are the expression of different purposes 
and practical needs in planning a college curriculum, and 
are neither quite indefensible nor necessarily contradictory 
in pedagogic theory. In the sni.all college with a nearly 
uniform curriculum and with limited means, a general 
course is perhaps best planned for the senior year, or in 
the junior year if there is an opportunity given to the 

^ Evidently it is not possible to draw from these data any definite 
conclusions as to the proportion of students beginning economics 
in each of the four years respectively. But probably three-fourths 
of all, possibly four fifths, take the general course either in the 
sophomore or the junior year. Most of the institutions giving eco- 
nomics only in the senior year are small, with a very restricted 
curriculum, often limited to one general course. But it is a widely 
observed fact that many students in large institutions postpone the 
election of the subject till their senior year. 



The Teaching of Economics 223 

student to do some more advanced work the year follow- 
ing. At the other extreme are some larger institutions 
in which the pressure of new subjects within the arts 
curriculum has shattered the fixed curriculum into frag- 
ments. This has made possible specialization along any 
one of a number of lines. Where this idea is carried out 
to the full, every general group of subjects eventually must 
make good its claim to a place in the freshman year for 
its fundamental course. But inasmuch as, in most institu- 
tions, the freshman year is still withheld from this free 
elective plan by the requirement of a small group of gen- 
eral subjects, economics is first open to students in the 
sophomore year. The license of the elective system is of 
course much moderated by the requirement to elect a de- 
partment, usually at the beginning either of the sophomore 
or of the junior year, and within each department both 
a more or less definite sequence of courses and a group 
of collateral requirements are usually enforced. Where re- 
sources are very limited it is probably best to give the 
economics course in the last two years, but where sev- 
eral more specialized courses in economics are given, it 
should be introduced as early as the sophomore year. If 
a freshman course in the subject is given it should be 
historical, descriptive, or methodical (e. g., statistical 
methods, graphics, etc.) rather than theoretical. The ex- 
perience (or lack of experience) and knowledge of the in- 
dustrial world, past and present, possessed by the average 
American college student is such that courses of that kind 
meet a great need.^ 

Teachers of economics today are doubtless attempting the Tune to te 
impossible in compressing the present "general course" fcoS^mics 
into three hours for two semesters. No other department J^ ^ *^°^" . 
of a university attempts to treat in such a brief time so lum 
broad a subject, including both principles and applications. 
Such a course was quite long enough in the days when all 
economic instruction was given by gray-haired theologians, 

1 Of this see further below, page 226. 



224 College Teaching 

philosophers, mathematicians, and linguists, dogmatically 
expounding the pons asinorum of economics, and quiz- 
zing from a dusty textbook of foreign authorship. But now 
the growing and vigorous tribe of specialized economic 
teachers is bursting with information and illustrations. 
Moreover, the range of economic topics and of economic 
interests has expanded wonderfully. 

The resulting overcrowded condition of the general course 
is possibly the main cause of the difficulties increasingly 
felt by teachers in handling that course satisfactorily. As 
a part of a general college curriculum " general economics " 
cannot be satisfactorily treated in less than three hours a 
week for two years. The additional time should not be 
spent in narrow specialization but rather in getting a 
broader understanding of the subject through economic 
history and geography, through observation and descrip- 
tion of actual conditions, through a greater use of prob- 
lems and examples, and through more detailed, less super- 
ficial study of the fundamental principles. As a part of 
sixteen years of the whole educational scheme from primary 
grade to college diploma such a course would claim but 
21/2 per cent of the student's whole time, while the sub- 
jects of English, mathematics, and foreign linguistics each 
gets about 20 per cent, in the case even of students who 
do not specialize in one of these branches. 

Of the replies ^ from nearly three hundred colleges to 
the question whether economics was required for gradua- 
tion, about 55 per cent were in the affirmative. Unfor- 
tunately the question was ambiguous, and the replies ap- 
parently were understood to mean generally that it was 
required in one or more curricula, not of all graduates 
(though in some cases the question was probably taken 
in the other sense) . It is noteworthy that more frequently 
economics is required in the smaller colleges having but one 
curriculum, that of liberal studies. In the larger institu- 
tions economics is usually not required of students in the 
humanities, although of late it has increasingly been made 

^ Article cited, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 19, page 768. 



TJie Teaching of Ecoriortiics 225 



a part of the technical college curricula, especially in 
engineering and agriculture.^ So we are in a fair way to 
arrive at the situation where no student except in those 
" liberal " arts courses can get a college diploma without 
studying economics; only in a modern course in the 
humanities may the study of human society be left out. 

The economists have not been active in urging their sub- 
ject as a requirement. The call for increasing require- 
ments in economics has come from the public and from the 
alumni. The steady increase in the number of students 
electing economic courses without corresponding additions 
to the teaching forces has made the overworked professors 
of the subject thankful when nothing more was done to 
increase by faculty requirements the burden of their class 
work. It is charged and it is admitted in some institutions 
that the standards of marking are purposely made more 
severe in the economics courses than in courses in most 
other subjects. The purpose avowed is " to cut out the dead 
timber," so that only the better students will be eligible for 
enrollment in the advanced economics courses. An un- 
fortunate result is to discourage some excellent students, 
ambitious for high marks or honors, from electing courses 
in economics because thereby their average grades would 
be reduced. In many cases, for this reason, good students 
take the subject optionally (without credit), though doing 
full work in it. 

We have already, in discussing the place of economics, Organiza- 
necessarily touched upon the organization of the courses. sub'iecMn^ 
In most colleges this organization is very simple. The *^^ecoUege 
whole economic curriculum consists of the "general" '""''"^"'" 
course, or at most of iiat plus one or more somewhat 
specialized courses given the next year. The most usual 
year of advanced work consists of one semester each of 
money and banking and of public finance. A not un- 

iThe Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education has had 
a standing committee on economics, since 1915. The first commit- 
tee was composed of three engineers (all of them consulting and 
m practice and two of them also teachers) and the present writer. 



226 College Teaching 

usual plan, well suited to the situation in a small college 
where economics takes the full time of one teacher, is to 
give the general course in the sophomore year, and to 
offer a two-year cycle of advanced work, the two courses 
being given in alternate years, the class consisting of 
juniors and seniors. In this plan the additional courses 
may be in transportation, in labor problems, in trusts and 
corporations, and frequently of late, in accounting. 
Ordinarily the " general " course itself involves a logical 
sequence, the first term dealing with fundamental con- 
cepts and theories, and the second term covering in a rapid 
survey a pretty wide range of special problems. The 
majority of the students take only the general course. 
Those who go on to more advanced courses retrace the 
next year some of the ground of the second semester's work, 
but this is probably for few of them a loss of time. In- 
deed, in such a subject as economics this opportunity to 
let first teachings " sink in," and strange concepts become 
familiar, is for most students of great value. Yet the plan 
was adopted and is followed as a compromise, using one 
course as a ready-made fit for the differing needs of two 
groups of students. We have seen above (page 221) that 
preceding the general, or systematic, course, there is in a 
number of colleges a simpler one. In some cases ^ the ex- 
periment has been undertaken of studying first for a time 
certain broad institutional features of our existing society, 
such as property, the wage system, competition, and the 
amount and distribution of wealth. The need of such a 
course is said to be especially great in the women's col- 
leges. If so, it is truly urgent, for most young men come 
to college with very meager experience in economic lines. 
Few, if any, teachers would deny that such an introductory 

1 In Amherst, as described in Journal of Political Economy by Pro- 
fessor W. H. Hamihon, on "The Amherst Program in Economics"; 
and in Chicago University beginning in 1916. See also, by the 
same writer, a paper on " The Institutional Approach to Economic 
Theory," in the American Economic Review, Supplement, page 309, 
March, 1919. 



The Teaching of Economics 227 

course preceding the principles is distinctly of advantage.^ 
Some would favor it even at the price of shortening ma- 
terially the more general course. But most teachers would 
agree that together the introductory course and the general 
course should take two full years (three hours a week, 
twelve college credit hours, as usually reckoned), an 
amount of time which cannot be given by the " floater " 
electing economics. And to accommodate both those who 
have had the introductory course and those who have not, 
the general course would have to be given in two divisions 
and in two ways. Again we come to the thought, sug- 
gested above, that probably we are attempting too much 
in too brief a time in the general course today. A longer 
time for the study would permit of a sequence that would 
be more logically defensible. It would begin with histori- 
cal and descriptive studies, both because they are funda- 
mentally necessary and because, being of more concrete 
nature, they may be given in a form easier for the beginner 
to get. In this period a good deal of the terminology can 
be gradually familiarized. Then should come the more 
elementary analytical studies and fundamental principles, 
followed by a discussion of a number of practical prob- 
lems. In conclusion should come a more systematic survey 
of general principles, of which most students now get but 
a superficial idea. The work in the specialized elective 
courses would then be built upon much firmer foundations 
than is the case at present. 

The main methods that have been developed and tested ^©tjpds of 
in the teaching of undergraduate classes in economics may 
be designated as the lecture method, the textbook method, 
the problem method. Any one of these may be used well- 

^ At the meeting of the American Economic Association in 1897, at 
which was discussed " The Relation of the Teaching of Economic 
History to the Teaching of Political Economy," the opinion was 
expressed by one teacher that economic history should follow the 
general course. But all the others agreed that such a course should 
begin the sequence, and this seems to be the almost invariable prac- 
tice. See Economic Studies, Volume III, pages 88-101, Publica- 
tions of the American Economic Association, 1898. 



228 College Teaching 

nigh exclusively, or, as is more usual, two or more may 
be combined in varying proportions; e.g., lectures with 
" supplementary " (or " collateral ") readings, with or with- 
out an occasional meeting in a quiz section. Along with 
these main methods often are used such supplementary 
methods as topical reports requiring individual library 
work; laboratory exercises, as in statistics, accounting, etc.; 
individual field work to study some industrial problem; 
and visits, as a class, and with guidance, to factories and 
industrial enterprises. 

The choice of these particular methods of teaching is, 
however, largely conditioned by the teacher's antecedent 
choice between the deductive or the inductive forms of 
presentation. This is an old controversy ever recurring. 
But it should be observed that the question here is not 
whether induction or deduction is a greater aid in arriv- 
ing at new truth, but it is whether the inductive or the 
deductive process is the better for the imparting of in- 
struction to beginners. In teaching mathematics, the most 
deductive of the sciences, use may be made of such in- 
ductive aids as object lessons, physical models, and practi- 
cal problems; and per contra, in the natural sciences, where 
induction is the chief instrument of research, elementary 
instruction is largely given in a deductive manner by the 
statement of general propositions, the workings of which 
are then exemplified. The decision of the question which 
is the better of these two pedagogic methods in a particular 
case, depends (a) partly on the average maturity and ex- 
perience of the class; (b) partly on the mental quality of 
the students; and (c) partly on the interest and qualifica- 
tions of the teacher. 

(a) The choice of the best method of teaching is of 
course dependent on the same factors that have been shown 
above to affect the nature and sequence of the courses. 
The simpler method leading to more limited results is more 
suitable for the less mature classes; but the scientific stage 
in the treatment of any subject is not reached until general 
principles are discussed. If one is content with a vocational 



The Teaching of Economics 229 



result in economic teaching, stopping short of the theoreti- 
cal, philosophic outlook, more can be accomplished in a 
short time by the concrete method. But such teachintr 
would seem to belong in a trade school rather than in a 
college of higher studies, and in any case should be given 
by a vocational teacher rather than by a specialist in social, 
or political, economy. 

(6) Every college class presents a gradation of minds Various 
capable (whether from nature or training) of attaining ^a\u°te<i 
different states of comprehension. Of students in the lower 
half of the classes in American colleges, it may be said 
broadly that they never can or will develop the capacity of 
thinking abstractly and that the concrete method of teach- 
ing would give better results in their cases. Therefore the 
teacher attempts to compromise, to adopt a method that 
fits the " mode," the middle third of the class, wasting much 
of the time of the brighter (or of the more earnest) 
students, and letting those in the lowest third trail along 
as best they can. This difficulty may be met with some 
success where there are several sections of a class by 
grouping the men in accordance with their previous 
scholarship records. This grouping is beneficial alike to 
those lower and to those higher than the average in scholar- 
ship. 

(c) Quite as important in this connection as this sub- 
jective quality of the students, is the characteristic quality 
of the teacher. A particular teacher will succeed better or 
worse with any particular method according as it fits his 
aim and is in accord with his endowment and training. 
If he is himself of the " hard-headed " unimaginative or 
unphilosophic type, he will of course deem effort wasted 
that goes beyond concrete facts. He will give little place to 
the larger aspects and principles of " political " economy, 
but will deal exhaustively with the details of commercial 
economy. If the teacher is civic-minded and sympathetic, 
he will be impelled to trace economic forces, in their ac- 
tions and interactions, far beyond the particular enterprise, 
to show how the welfare of others is affected. To do this 



230 College Teaching 

rightly, knowledge of the conditions must be combined 
with a deeper theoretical insight; but the civic aim operates 
selectively to limit the choice of materials and analysis 
to those contemporary issues that appeal at the time to 
the textbook writer, to the teacher, or to the public. Still 
different is the case of the teacher who finds his greatest 
joy in the theoretical aspects of economics, possesses a 
clean-cut economic philosophy (even though it may not be 
ultimate truth), and has faith in economics as a disciplinary 
subject. Such a teacher will (other things being equal) 
have, relatively, his greatest success with the students of 
greatest ability; he will get better results in teaching the 
" principles " than in teaching historical and descriptive 
facts. None will deny that this type of education has an 
important place. Even in the more descriptive courses ap- 
peal should be made to the higher intellectual qualities of 
the class, leaving a lasting disciplinary result rather than 
a memory stored with merely ephemeral and mostly in- 
significant information. 

The teacher with colorless personality and without in- 
terest in, and knowledge of, the world of reality, will 
fail, whatever be the purpose of his teaching. The higher 
the teacher's aim, the farther may he fall below its attain- 
ment. A college teacher whose message is delivered on 
the mental level of grammar school children should, of 
course, score a pretty high percentage of success in giving 
a passing mark to sophomores, juniors, and seniors in 
American colleges. But is this really a success, or is it 
rather not evidence of a failure in the whole school curricu- 
lum, and of woful waste in our system of so-called " higher " 
education? Are colleges for the training of merely 
mediocre minds? 
Aim and at- These questions of aim and of attitude are more funda- 
fundamenui "cental than is the question of the particular device of in- 
than method struction to be used, as lecture, textbook, etc. Yet the latter 
struction question is not without its importance. In general it ap- 
pears that practice has moved and still moves in a cycle. 
In the American college world as a whole each particular 



The Teaching of Econo7nics 231 



college repeats some or all of the typical phases with the 
growth of its economic department. 

(1) First is the textbook, with recitations in small 
classes. (2) Next, the lecture gradually takes a larger 
place as the classes grow, until, supplemented by required 
readings, it becomes the main tool of instruction, this be- 
ing the cheapest and easiest way to take care of the rapidly 
growing enrollmeiU- (3) Then, when this proves unsatis- 
factory, the lectures are perhaps cut down to two a week, 
and the class is divided into quiz sections for one meeting 
a week under assistants or instructors, the lecture still being 
the main center of the scheme of teaching. (4) This still 
being unsatisfactory (partly because it lacks oversight of 
the students' daily work, and partly because the lecture 
is unsuited to the development of general principles that 
require careful and repeated study for their mastery), a 
textbook is made the basis of section meetings, held 
usually twice a week, and the lectures are reduced to one 
a week, given to the combined class, and so changed in 
character as to be merely supplementary to the class work. 
The lectures are given either in close connection week by 
week with the class work or bearing only a general rela- 
tion with the term's work as a whole. This may be deemed 
the prevailing mode today in institutions where the in- 
troductory course has a large enrollment.^ (5) Another 
change completes the cycle; the lecture is dropped and the 
class is divided, each section, consisting of twenty to thirty 
students, meeting with the same teacher regularly for class 
work. This change was made after mature consideration 
in "the College" in Columbia University; is in operation 
in Chicago University, where the meetings are held five 
times a week; and has been adopted more recently still in 
New York University. There have been for years evidences 
of the growing desire to abolish the lecture from the intro- 
ductory course and also to limit its use in some of the 

1 This plan has at various times been followed at Stanford, Cornell, 
Harvard, and Princeton, to cite only a few of the numerous ex- 
amples. 



a textbook 



232 College Teaching 

special undergraduate courses. The preceptorial plan 
adopted in 1905 by Princeton University is the most notable 
instance of the latter change.^ Even in graduate teaching 
in economics there has been a growing opinion and prac- 
tice favorable to the " working " course or " seminar " 
course to displace lecture courses.^ Thus the lecture seems 
likely to play a less prominent role, especially in the in- 
troductory courses, but it is not likely to be displaced en- 
tirely in the scheme of instruction. 
Selection of Numerous American textbooks on political economy 
(thirty, it is said) have been published in the last quarter 
of a century, a fact which has now and then been deplored 
by the pessimistic critic.^ Few share this opinion, how- 
ever. The textbooks have, to be sure, often served, not to 
unfold a consistent system of thought, but to reveal 
the lack of one. But they have afforded to the teachers 
and students, in a period of developing conceptions on the 
subjects, a wide choice of treatment of the principles much 
more exactly worked out and carefully expressed than is 
possible through the medium of lectures as recorded in the 
students' hastily written notes. 

Questions, exercises, and test problems are widely used 
as supplementary material for classroom discussion.* 

1 In this plan the sections are small (three to seven students) and 
the preceptor is expected to give much time to the personal super- 
vision of the student's reading, reports, and general scholarship. 
The preceptorial work is rated at more than half of the entire work 
of the term. The one great difficulty of the preceptorial system is 
its cost. 

2 A strong plea is made for the " retirement of the lectures " by 
C. E. Persons, in the Quarterly Journal of Economics^ Vol. XXXI, 
" Teaching the Introductory Course in Economics," November, 1916, 
pages 96-98. 

^ Professor J. H. Hollander, American Economic Review, Vol. VI, 
No. 1, Supplement (March, 1916), page 135. See dissenting opin- 
ions in the discussion that followed. 

4 Professor C. E. Persons (art. cited page 86, November, 1916) gives 
the titles of ten separate books or pamphlets of this kind; since 
which date have appeared the author's " Manual of References and 
Exercises," Parts I and II, to accompany Economic Principles, 
1915, and Modern Economic Problems, 1916, respectively. 



The TeUching of Economics 233 



Separately printed collections of such material date back 
at least to W. G. Sumner's Problems in Political Economy 
(1884), which in turn acknowledged indebtedness to other 
personal sources and to Milnes' collection of two thousand 
questions and problems from English examination papers. 
With somewhat varying aims, further commented upon be- 
low, and in varying degrees, all teachers of economics 
now make use of such questions in their teaching of both 
general and special courses. Unquestionably there are, in 
the use of the problem method, possibilities for good which 
few teachers have fully realized.^ 

The selection and arrangement of materials for supple- 
mentary readings is guided by various motives, more or 
less intermingling. It may be chiefly to parallel a syste- 
matic text by extracts taken largely from the older " clas- 
sics " of the subject (as in C. J. Bullock's Selected Read- 
ings in Economics, 1907) ; or to provide additional concrete 
material bearing mostly upon present economic problems 
(as in the author's Source Book in Economics, 1912) ; or 
to supplement a set of exercises and problems (as in F. M. 
Taylor's Some Readings in Economics, 1907) ; or to con- 
stitute of itself an almost independent textbook of extracts, 
carefully edited with original introductions to chapters (as 
Marshall, Wright, and Field's Materials for the Study of 
Elementary Economics, 1913, and W. H. Hamilton's Read- 
ings in Current Economic Problems, 1914). 

Whatever be the particular tool of instruction, whether 
lecture, textbook with classroom discussion, problem study, 
or collateral readings, its use may be very different accord- 
ing as the teacher seeks to develop the subject positively 
or negatively, to present a single definite and (if he can) 

1 Among those most elaborately developing this method has been 
Professor F. M. Taylor of the University of Michigan. See his 
paper on the subject and discussion in the Journal of Political 
Economy, Vol. VII, pages 688-703 (December, 1909). Marshall, 
Wright, and Field published the Outline of Economics, developed 
as a series of problems in 1910, which they used for a time as the 
main tool of instruction in the introductory course in Chicago 
University. 



234 College Teaching 

coherent body of doctrines, or a variety of opinions that 
have been held, among which the student is encouraged to 
choose. Evidently the conditions determining choice in the 
case of advanced courses are different from those in the 
introductory course. For the beginner time is required 
in order that economic principles may sink in, and so he is 
bewildered if at first he is introduced to a number of theories 
by different authors. Materials that supplement the gen- 
eral course of principles should therefore be limited to sub- 
ject matter that is descriptive, concrete, and illustrative. 
The beginner, somewhat dazed with the variety of new facts, 
ideas, terminology, and problems in the field into which 
he has entered, needs guidance to think clearly step by step 
about them.^ Not until the pupil has learned to see and 
apprehend the simpler economic phenomena near him can 
he be expected to survey the broader fields and to form in- 
dependent judgments concerning complex situations. He 
must creep before he can run. In fact, teachers are often 
self-deceived when they imagine that they are leaving stu- 
dents to judge for themselves among various opinions or 
to find their way inductively to their own conclusions. The 
recitation, in truth, becomes the simple game of " hot and 
cold." The teacher has in mind what he considers the right 
answer; the groping student tries to guess it; and as he 
ventures this or that inexpert or lucky opinion he is either 
gently chided or encouraged. At length some bright pupil 
wins the game by agreeing with the teacher's theretofore 
skilfully concealed opinion. This is called teaching by the 
inductive method. 

Undoubtedly it is more desirable to develop in the stu- 
dent the ability to think independently about economic ques- 
tions than it is to drill him into an acceptance of ready- 
made opinions on contemporary practical issues. The more 
fundamental economic theory — the more because its bear- 
ing on pecuniary and class interests is not close or obvious 

1 A thoughtful discussion of some phases of this problem is given 
by Persons, art. cited, pages 98 ff., favoring the more positive treat- 
ment with less distracting multiplicity of detail. 



The Teaching of Economics 235 

— is an admirable organ for the development of the stu- 
dent's power of reasoning. But to give the student this 
training it is not necessary to keep him in the dark as to 
what he is to learn. The Socratic method is still unex- 
celled in the discussion of a text and of lectures in which 
propositions are clearly laid down and explained. The 
theorem in geometry is first stated, and then the student is 
conducted step by step through the reasoning leading to that 
conclusion. Should not the student of economics have pre- 
sented to him in a similar way the idea or principle, and 
then be required to follow the reasoning upon which it 
is based? Then, through questions and problems, — the 
more the better, if time permits of their thorough discus- 
sion and solution, — the student may be exercised in the 
interpretation of the principles, and by illustrations drawn 
from history and contemporary conditions may be shown 
the various applications of the principle to practical prob- 
lems. To get and hold the student's interest, to fascinate 
him with the subject, is equal in importance to the method, 
for without interest good results are impossible.^ 

1 To a former student of mine and now a successful teacher, Dean 
J. R. Turner of New York University, I am indebted for the sug- 
gestion of the following practical rules, a few among many possible, 
which should be helpful to younger teachers: 

ia) Keep the student expecting a surprise, afraid to relax 
attention for fear of missing something. 

ib) By Socratic method lead him into error, then have him 
(under cross fire and criticism of class) reason his way out. 

(c) Make fallacious argument, then call for criticism giving 
distinction to him who renders best judgment. 

id) Set tasks and have members of class compete in intel- 
lectual contests. 

(e) Make sure that each principle learned is seen in its 
relationship to practical affairs. 

(/) Enliven each dry principle with an anecdote or illustra- 
tion to elucidate it, for principles devoid of interesting 
features cannot secure attention and so will not be re- 
membered. 

ig) Accompany the discussion with charts and board work to 
visualize facts and questions to stimulate thought. 

(A) Ask questions and so handle the class discussions that a 



236 College Teaching 

Tests of jf must be confessed that no exact objective measure of 

suits the efficiency of teaching methods in economics has been 

found. At best we have certain imperfect indices, among 
which are the formal examination, the student's own opinion 
at the close of the course, and the student's revised opinion 
after leaving college. 

The primary purpose of the traditional examination is 
not to test the relative merits of the different methods of 
teaching, but to test the relative merits of the various stu- 
dents in a class, whatever be the method of teaching. Every 
teacher knows that high or low average marks in an en- 
tire class are evidences rather of the standard that he is 
setting than it is of the merits of his teaching methods, — 
though in some cases he is able to compare the results ob- 
tained after using two different methods of exposition for 
the same subject. But, as was indicated above, such a 
difference may result from his own temperament and may 
point only to the method that he can best use, not to the 
best absolutely considered. Moreover, the teacher may 
make the average marks high or low merely by varying 
the form and content of the examination papers or the 
strictness of his markings. 

Each ideal and method of teaching has its corresponding 
type of examination. Descriptive and concrete courses 
lend themselves naturally to memory tests; theoretical 
courses lend themselves to problems and reasoning. A 
high type of question is one whose proper answer neces- 
sitates knowledge of the facts acquired in the course to- 
gether with an interpretation of the principles and their 
application to new problems. Memory tests serve to mark 
off " the sheep from the goats " as regards attention and 

few will not do all the talking, that foreign subject matter 
is not introduced, that a consistent and logical develop- 
ment of thought is strictly adhered to. 
(i) The last few minutes of the period might well be devoted 
to the assignment for the next meeting. The best manner 
of assignment must depend upon the nature of task, the ad- 
vancement of the student, the purpose in view. 



The Teaching of Economics 237 

faithful work; reasoning tests serve to give a motive for 
disciplinary study and to measure its results. It may per- 
haps seem easier to test the results of the student's work in 
memory subjects; but even as to that we know that there 
are various types of memory and how much less signifi- 
cant are marks obtained by " the cramming process " than 
are equally good marks obtained as a result of regular at- 
tention to daily tasks. 

The students' revised and matured judgment of the value 
of their various college studies generally differ, often 
greatly, from their judgments while taking or just after 
completing the courses. Yet even years afterward can man 
judge rightly in his own case just what has been the rela- 
tive usefulness to him of the different elements of his com- 
plex college training, or of the different methods em- 
ployed? ^ But the evidence that comes from the most 
successful alumni to the college teacher in economics 
is increasingly to the effect that the college work they have 
come to value most is that which " teaches the student to 
think." Our judgments in this matter are influenced by the 
larger educational philosophy that we hold. Each will 
have his standard of spiritual values. 

The moot questions in the teaching of the subject have. Moot ques- 

perhaps, been sufficiently indicated, but we may here add economics 

a word as to the bearings which certain moot questions affecting 

^ the teach- 

1 An interesting study made by the department of education of Har- gu|ject^^ 
vard University of the teaching methods and results in the depart- 
ment of economics was referred to in President Lowell's report. 
According to the answers of the alumni their work in economics 
is now valued mainly for its civic and disciplinary results (these 
do not seem to have been further distinguished) . In the introduc- 
tory course reading was ranked first, class work next, and lec- 
tures least, in value. In the advanced courses the lecture was 
ranked higher and class work lower, but that may be because the 
lecture plays a more important role there than in the lower classes. 
Answers regarding such matters are at most significant as indicating 
the relative importance of the various methods as they have actually 
been employed in the particular institution, and have little validity 

, in reference to the work and methods of other teachers working 
under other conditions, and with students having different life aims. 



238 College Teaching 

in the theory of the subject may have on the methods of 
teaching. The fundamental theory of economics has, since 
the days of Adam Smith, been undergoing a process of 
continuous transition, but the broader concepts never have 
been more in dispute than in the last quarter century in 
America. The possibility of such diversity of opinion in 
the fundamentals among the leading exponents of the sub- 
ject argues strongly that economics is still a philosophy — 
a general attitude of mind and system of opinion — rather 
than a positive science. At best it is a " becoming sci- 
ence " which never can cease entirely to have a speculative, 
or philosophic character. This is not the place to go into 
details of matters in controversy. Suffice it to say that in 
rivalry to the older school — which is variously designated 
Ricardian, Orthodox, English, or classical — newer ideas 
have been developed, dating from the work of the Aus- 
trian economists, of Jevons, and of J. B. Clark in the last 
decades of the nineteenth century. The older school had 
sought the explanation of value and the theory of distribu- 
tion in objective factors, — partly in the chemical quali- 
ties of the soil, partly in labor, partly in the costs (or 
outlays) of the employing class. The psychological factor 
in value had been almost eliminated from this older treat- 
ment of value and price, or at best was imperfectly recog- 
nized under the name of " utility." The newer school made 
the psychological element primary in the positive treat- 
ment of economic principles, and launched a negative criti- 
cism against the older terms and ideas that effectively ex- 
posed their unsoundness considered separately and their 
inconsistency as a system of economic thought. Both the 
negative criticisms and the proposed amendments taken one 
by one gained wide acceptance among economists. But 
when it came to embodying them in a general theory of 
economics, many economists have balked. -"^ Most of the 

1 The typical attitude of many economists is expressed about as fol- 
lows: It is one thing to give assent to refinements when they are 
used in the discussion of some single point of theory, and it is 
quite another thing to accept them when one sees how, in their 



The Teaching of Economics 239 

American texts in economics and much of our teaching show 
disastrous effects of this confusion and irresolution. The 
newer concepts, guardedly admitted to have some validity, 
appear again and again in the troubled discussions of re- 
cent textbook writers, which usually end with a rejec- 
tion, " on the whole," of the logical implications of these 
newer concepts. Many teachers thus have lost their grip 
on any coordinating theory of distribution. They no 
longer have any general economic philosophy. The old 
Ricardian cock-sureness had its pedagogic merits. Without 
faith, teaching perishes. The complaints of growing diffi- 
culty in the teaching of the introductory course seem to 
have come particularly from teachers that are in this un- 
happy state of mind. They declare that it is impossible 
longer to interest students successfully in a general theoret- 
ical course, and they are experimenting with all kinds of 
substitutes — de-nicotinized tobacco and Kaffee Hag — 
from which poisonous theory has been extracted. At the 
same time, economics " with a punch in it," economics 
" with a back bone," is being taught by strong young 
teachers of the new faith more successfully, perhaps, than 
economics has ever been taught in the past. This greater 
question of the teacher's conception of economics domi- 
nates all the minor questions of method. Economics can- 
not be taught as an integrated course in principles by 
teachers without theoretical training and conceptions; in 
such hands its treatment is best limited to the descriptive 
phases of concrete special problems, — valuable, indeed, as 
a background and basis, but never rising to the plane upon 

combined effect, they would carry us away from " the old familiar 
moorings." 

Such a view, it need not be urged, reflects an unscientific state 
of mind. The real cause of the rejection of the ideas probably 
is the shrinking of over-busy men, in middle life, and absorbed 
in teaching and in special problems, from the intellectual task of 
restudying the fundamentals and revising many of their earlier 
formed opinions — to say nothing of rewriting many of their old 
lectures and manuscripts. 



240 College Teaching 

which alone economics is fully worth the student's while 
as a college subject. 

Frank Albert Fetter 

Princeton University 

Bibliography 

The literature on the teaching of economics in the secondary 
schools, its need and its proper scope and method, is somewhat ex- 
tensive. Another goodly group of articles discusses the teaching of 
economic history and of other social sciences related to economics, 
either in high schools or colleges. A somewhat smaller group per- 
tains to graduate instruction in the universities. The following brief 
list of titles, arranged chronologically, is most pertinent to our pres- 
ent purpose: 

" The Relation of the Teaching of Economic History to the Teaching 

of Political Economy" (pages 88-101), and *' Methods of Teach 

ing Economics" (pages 105-111), A. E. A. Economic Studies 

Vol. 3, 1898. 
Proceedings of a conference on the teaching of elementary economics 

Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 17, December, 1909. 
Taylor, F. M, " Methods of Teaching Elementary Economics,' 

Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 17, December, 1909, page 688 
Wolfe, A. B. " Aim and Content of a College Course in Elementary 

Economics," Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 17, December. 

1909, page 673. 
Symposium by Carver, Clark, Seager, Seligman, Nearing, et al 

Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 18, 1910. 
Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Economics, Journal of 

Political Economy, Vol. 19, 1911, pages 760-789. 
Robinson, L. N. " The Seminar in the Colleges," Journal of Politi- 
cal Economy, Vol. 21, 1913, page 643. 
Wolfe, A. B. " The Aim and Content of the Undergraduate 

Economics Curriculum," Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 21, 

1913, page 1. 
Persons, Charles E. " Teaching the Introductory Course in 

Economics," Quarterly Journal of Economics, November, 1916. 



XI 
THE TEACHING OF SOCIOLOGY 

THE teaching of sociolosry as a definite collesre subject Growth of 
o J socio lOffV 

in the United States began at Yale nearly forty-five asacoi- 

years ago. Since 1873 it has been introduced into nearly ^®^® subject 
200 American colleges, universities, normal schools, and 
seminaries. A study of this teaching in 1910 revealed over 
700 courses offered to over 8000 undergraduates and 1100 
graduate students. It is safe to assume a steady growth 
during the last six years. Hence the problem of teaching 
is of no little concern to sociologists. The American 
Sociological Society early recognized this fact and in 1909 
appointed a Committee of Ten to report on certain aspects 
of the problem. But that all teachers of sociology have 
not grasped the bearing of pedagogy upon their work is 
clear from complaints still heard from students that 
sociology is vague, indefinite, abstract, dull, or scattered. 
Not long ago some bright members of a class were over- 
heard declaring that their professor must have been struck 
by a gust of wind which scattered his notes every day be- 
fore getting to his desk. 

Sociology is simply a way of looking at the same world Thepeda- 
of reality which every other science looks at in its own way. sociology 
It cannot therefore depart far from the pedagogical prin- f^^g^^^^^^^ 
ciples tried out in teaching other subjects. It must utilize college sub- 
the psychology of attention, interest, drill, the problem "'®^*^ 
method, procedure from the student's known to the new, 
etc. The universal pitfalls have been charted for all 
teachers by the educational psychologists. In addition, 
sociology may offer a few on its own account, partly be- 
cause it is new, partly because a general agreement as to 
the content of fundamentals in sociology courses is just 
beginning to make itself felt, partly because there is so 
far no really good textbook available as a guide to the 

beginner. 

241 



242 



College Teaching 



Methods of 
teaching 
sociology 
determined 
by a com- 
plex of vital 
factors 



Guiding 
principles 
in the 
teaching of 
sociology — 
The teacher 
as keen 
analyst, not 
revivalist 



Avoiding 
the formal 
lecture 



Specific methods of teaching vary according to individual 
temperament, the "set" of the teacher's mind; according 
to his bias of class, birth, or training; according to whether 
he has been formed or deformed by some strong personal- 
ity whose disciple he has become; according to whether 
he is a radical or a conservative; according to whether he 
is the dreamy, idealistic type or whether he hankers after 
concrete facts; according to whether sociology is a primary 
interest or only an incidental, more or less unwelcome. 

Hence part of the difficulty, though by no means all, 
comes from the fact that sociology is frequently expounded 
by men who have received no specific training themselves 
in the subject, or who have had the subject thrust upon 
them as a side issue. In this connection it is interesting 
to note that in 1910 sociology was " given " in only 20 
cases by sociology departments, in 63 by combinations of 
economics, history, and politics, in 11 by philosophy and 
psychology, in 2 by economics and applied Christianity or 
theology, in 1 by practical theology! 

Whatever the path which led into fehe sociological field 
or whatever the bias of temperament, experience justifies 
several preliminary hints for successful teaching. First, 
avoid the voice, the yearning manner, and the gesture of 
the preacher. Sociology needs the cool-headed analyst 
rather than the social revivalist. Let the sentimentalist 
and the muck-raker stay with their lecture circuits and the 
newspapers. The student wants enthusiasm and inspira- 
tion rather than sentimentality. 

Second, renounce the lecture, particularly with young 
students. There is no surer method of blighting the in- 
terest of students, of murdering their minds, and of ossify- 
ing the instructor than to persist in the pernicious habit 
of the formal lecture. Some men plead large classes in 
excuse. If they were honest with themselves they would 
usually find that they like large classes as a subtle sort of 
compliment to themselves. Given the opportunity to break 
up a class of two hundred into small discussion groups 
they would frequently refuse, on the score that they would 



The Teaching of Sociology 243 

lose a fine opportunity to influence a large group. Dodge 

it as you will, the lecture is and will continue to be an 

unsatisfactory, even vicious, way of attempting to teach 

social science. No reputable university tries to teach 

economics or politics nowadays in huge lecture sections. 

Only an abnormal conceit or abysmal poverty will prevent 

sociology departments from doing likewise. Remember 

that education is always an exchange, never a free gift. 

Third, do not be afraid to utilize commonplace facts and Adjusting 
.„ . . c ^ c r • 1 • instruction 

illustrations. A successiul proiessor oi sociology writes to the 

me that he can remember that what are mere common- capacities 

of your 

places now were revelations to him at twenty-one. Two of students 
the greatest teachers of the nineteenth century, Faraday 
and Huxley, attributed their success to the simple maxim, 
take nothing for granted. It is safe to assume that most 
students come from homes where business and petty neigh-, 
borhood doings are the chief concern, and where a broad, 
well-informed outlook on life is rare. Since so many of 
my colleagues insist that young Ph.D.'s tend constantly to 
" shoot over the heads " of their students, the best way of 
avoiding this particular pitfall seems to lie along the road 
of simple, elementary, concrete fact. The discussion 
method in the classroom will soon put the instructor right 
if he has gone to the other extreme of depreciating his 
students through kindergarten methods. Likewise he can 
guard against being oracular and pedantic by letting out 
his superior stores of information through free discussion 
in the Socratic fashion. Nothing is more important to 
good teaching than the knack of apt illustration. While 
to a certain extent it can be taught, just as the art of tell- 
ing a humorous story or making a presentation speech can 
be communicated by teachers of oral English, yet in the 
long run it is rather a matter of spontaneous upwellings 
from a well-stored mind. For example, suppose a class 
is studying the factors of variation and selection in social 
evolution: the instructor shows how Nature loves averages, 
not only by statistics and experiments with the standard 
curve of distribution, but also, if he is a really illuminated 



244 



College Teaching 



Pedagogical 
suggestions 
summarized 



The course 
of study — 
(a) Deter- 
mined by 
the maturi- 
ty of the 
students 



teacher, by reference, say, to the legend of David and 
Goliath, the fairy tale of Little One-Eye, Little Two-Eye, 
Little Three-Eye, and Lincoln's famous aphorism to the 
effect that the Lord must love the common people because 
he made so many of them. Sad experience advises that it 
is unsafe for an instructor any longer to assume that college 
sophomores are familiar with the Old Testament, classic 
myths, or Greek and Roman history. Hence he must be- 
ware of using any recondite allusions or illustrations which 
themselves need so much explanation that their bearing on 
the immediate problem in hand is obscured. An illustra- 
tion, like a funny story, loses its pungency if it requires a 
scholium. 

Fourth, adhere to what a friend calls the 16 to 1 basis 
— 16 parts fact and 1 part theory. Fifth, eschew the pro- 
fessor's chair. The blackboard is the teacher's " next 
friend." Recent time-motion studies lead us to believe that 
no man can use a blackboard efficiently unless he stands! 
The most celebrated teaching in history was peripatetic. 
Sixth, postpone the reconciling of discrepant social 
theorizings to the tougher-hided seniors or graduate 
students, and stick to the presentation of " accessible 
realities." Finally, an occasional friendly meeting with 
students, say once or twice a semester at an informal 
supper, will create an atmosphere of cooperative learning, 
will break down the traditional barriers of hostility between 
master and pupil, and may incidentally bring to the surface 
many useful hints for the framing of discussion prob- 
lems. 

To a certain extent teaching methods are determined by 
the age of the students. In 1910, of all the institutions 
reporting, 73 stated that sociology instruction began in the 
junior year; 23 admitted sophomores, 4 freshmen, 39 
seniors. But the unmistakable drift is in the direction of in- 
troducing sociology earlier in the college curriculum, and 
even into secondary and elementary schools. Hence the 
cautions voiced above tend to become all the more im- 
perative. Moreover, while in the past it has been possible 



The Teaching of Sociology 245 



to exact history, economics, political science, philosophy, 
psychology, or education as prerequisite to beginning work 
in sociology, in view of the downward trend of sociology 
courses it becomes increasingly more difficult to take things 
for granted in the student's preparation. Until the dream 
of offering a semester or year of general social science 
to all freshmen as the introduction to work in the special- 
ized branches of social science comes true, the sociologist 
must communicate to his elementary classes a sense of the 
relations between his view of social phenomena and the 
aspects of the same phenomena which the historian, the 
economist, the political scientist, and the psychologist 
handle. 

Both the content and methods of sociological instruction (b) Deter- 
are determined also in part by what its purpose is conceived "^T^^/ 
to be. A study of the beginnings of teaching this subject 
in the United States shows that it was prompted primarily 
by practical ends. For example, the American Social 
Science Association proposal (1878), in so far as it covered 
the field of sociology, included only courses on punish- 
ment and reformation of criminals, public and private 
charities, and prevention of vice. President White of 
Cornell in 1871 recommended a course of practical in- 
struction "calculated to fit young men to discuss intelli- 
gently such important social questions as the best methods 
of dealing practically with pauperism, intemperance, crime 
of various degrees and among persons of different ages, 
insanity, idiocy, and the like." Columbia University early 
announced that a university situated in such a city, full 
of problems at a time when "industrial and social 
progress is bringing the modern community face to face 
with social questions of the greatest magnitude, the solu- 
tion of which will demand the best scientific study and the 
most honest practical endeavor," must provide facilities for 
bringing university study into connection with practical 
work. In 1901 definite practical courses shared honors 
of first place with the elementary or general course in 
college announcements. The situation was practically the 



246 



College Teaching 



(c) Deter- 
mined by 
the social 
character of 
the com- 
munity 



The intro- 
ductory 
course the 
vital point 
of contact 
between 
student and 
the depart- 
ment 



same ten years later. Still more recently Professor Black- 
mar, one of the veterans in sociology teaching, worked 
out rather an elaborate program of what he called a " rea- 
sonable department of sociology for colleges and universi- 
ties." In spite of the fact that theoretical, biological, 
anthropological, and psychological aspects of the subject 
were emphasized, his conclusion was that " the whole aim 
is to ground sociology in general utility and social service. 
It is a preparation for social efficiency." 

The principle of adaptation to environment comes into 
play also in the choice of teaching methods. An urban 
department can send its students directly into the field 
for first-hand observation of industry, housing, sanitation, 
congestion, playgrounds, immigration, etc., and may en- 
courage " supervised field work " as fulfilling course re- 
quirements. But the country or small town department 
far removed from large cities must emphasize rural social 
study, or get its urban data second hand through print, 
charts, photographs, or lantern slides. A semester ex- 
cursion to the city or to some state charitable institution 
adds such a touch of vividness to the routine class work. 
But " slumming parties " are to be ruthlessly tabooed, 
particularly when featured in the newspapers. Social 
science is not called upon to make experimental guinea 
pigs of the poor simply because of their poverty and in- 
ability to protect themselves. 

For many reasons the most serious problems of teaching 
sociology center about the elementary or introductory 
course. Advanced undergraduate and graduate courses 
usually stand or fall by the inherent appeal of their con- 
tent as organized by the peculiar genius of the instructor. 
If the student has been able to weather the storms of his 
" Introduction," he will usually have gained enough 
momentum to carry him along even against the adverse 
winds of bad pedagogy in the upper academic zones. 
Since the whole purpose of sociology is the very practical 
one of giving the student mental tools with which to think 
straight on societal problems (what Comte called the 



The Teaching of Sociology 247 

"social point of view"), and since usually only a com- 
paratively small number find it possible to specialize in 
advanced courses, the introductory course assumes what at 
first sight might seem a disproportionate importance. 
Only one or two teachers of sociology, so far as I know, 
discount the value of an elementary course. The rest are 
persuaded of its fundamental importance, and many, there- 
fore, consider it a breach of trust to turn over this course 
to green, untried instructors. Partly as a recruiting de- 
vice for their advanced courses, partly from this sense of 
duty, they undertake instruction of beginners. But it is 
often impossible for the veteran to carry this elementary 
work: he must commit it to younger men. For that rea- 
son the remainder of this chapter will be given over to a 
discussion of teaching methods for such an elementary 
course, with younger teachers in mind. 

First, two or three general hints. It is unwise, to say the Teaching 
least, to attempt to cover the social universe in one course, for the ^ 
Better a few simple concepts, abundantly illustrated, ^^*y°5j^*^*°'y 
organized clearly and systematically. Perhaps it is danger- 
ous to suggest a few recurrent catch phrases to serve as 
guiding threads throughout the course, but that was the 
secret of the old ballad and the folk tale. Homer and the 
makers of fairy tales combined art and pedagogy in their 
use of descriptive epithets. Such a phrase as Ward's 
" struggle for existence is struggle for structure " might 
furnish the framework of a whole course. " Like-minded- 
ness," " interest-groups," " belief -groups," and " folk- 
ways " are also convenient refrains. 

Nobody but a thoroughgoing pedant will drag his 
students through two weeks' lectures and a hundred pages 
of text at the beginning of the course in the effort to define 
sociology and chart all its affinities and relations with every 
other science. Twenty minutes at the first class meeting 
should suffice to develop an understanding of what the 
scientific attitude is and a tentative definition of sociology. 
The whole course is its real definition. At the end of the 
term the very best way of indicating the relation of sociology 



course 



248 



College Teaching 



to other sciences is through suggestions about following 
up the leads obtained in the course by work in biology, 
economics, psychology, and other fields. This correlation 
of the student's program gives him an intimate sense of 
the unity in diversity of the whole range of science. 

If the student is to avoid several weeks of floundering, 
he should be led directly to observe societal relations in 
the making. This can perhaps be accomplished best 
through assigning a series of four problems at the first 
class meetings. 

Problem I: To show how each student spins a web 
of social relationship. Let him take a sheet of paper, 
place a circle representing himself in the middle of it, then 
add dots and connecting lines for every individual or in- 
stitution he forms a contact with during the next two or 
three days. He will get a figure looking something like 
this: ^, , 

Mother 



Dentist 




5katj 



riend 



Police station 



Florist 



Problem II: To show how neighborhoods are socially 
bound up. Let the student take a section, say two or 



The Teaching of Sociology 249 



three blocks square, in a district he knows well, and map 
it, — showing all the contacts. Again he will get a web 
somewhat like this: 



Sewing 
girl 



Home 




Church 



Rectc 



iiy 



These diagrams are adapted from students' reports. If 
they seem absurdly simple, it is well to remember that 
experience reveals the student's amazing lack of ability to 
vizualize social relationships without some such device. 
These diagrams, however, should serve merely as the point 
of departure. Add to them charts showing the sources of 
milk and other food supplies of a large city, and a sense 
of the interdependence and reciprocity of city and country 
will develop. Take a Mercator's projection map of the 
world and draw the trade routes and immigration streams 
to indicate international solidarities. Such diagrams as 
the famous health tract " A Day in the Life of a Fly " or the 
story of Typhoid Mary are helpful in establishing how 
closely a community is bound together. 

Problem III: To show the variety and kinds of social 
activities, i. e., activities that bring two or more people 
into contact. Have the student note down even the homeli- 
est sorts of such activities, the butcher, the postman, the 
messenger boy; insist that he go out and look instead of 



250 



College Teaching 



guessing or reading; require him to group these activi- 
ties under headings which he may work out for himself. 
He will usually arrive at three or four, such as getting a 
living, recreation, political. It may be wise to ask him 
to grade these activities as helpful, harmful, strengthening, 
or weakening, in order to accustom him to the idea that 
sociology must treat of good, bad, and indifferent objects. 

Problem IV: To determine what the preponderant 
social interests and activities are as judged by the amount 
of time men devote to them. Let the student try a " time 
budget " for a fortnight. For this purpose Giddings sug- 
gests a large sheet of paper ruled for a wide left-hand 
margin and 32 narrow columns: the first 24 columns for 
hours of the day, the 25th for the word " daily," and the 
last seven for the seven days of the week. In the margin 
the student writes the names of every activity of whatever 
description during the waking hours. This will furnish ex- 
cellent training in exact habits of observation and record- 
ing, and inductive generalization. When the summary is 
made at the end of the fortnight, the student will have 
worked for himself the habitual " planes of interest " along 
which social activities lie. 

At this point he ought to have convinced himself that 
the subject matter of sociology is concrete reality, not 
moonshine. Moreover, he should be able to lay down 
certain fundamental marks of a social group, such as a 
common impulse to get together, common sentiments, ideas, 
and beliefs, reciprocal service. From the discovery of 
habitual planes of interest (self -maintenance, self-perpetua- 



ixner urge or inter- 
est (instinct or 
disposition) 

Hunger; Wilij-to-Livl 
Self-MaiBtenance 



Sex : Self -Perpetuation 



motor expression in 
activity 



The food-quest 



Procreation and parent 
hood 



RESULTANT GROUP HAB 
IT OR institution 



Economic technique, 
property, invention, 
material arts of life 

The family, ancestor 
worship, courts of do 
mestic relations, pa- 
triarchal government, 
etc. 



The Teaching of Sociology 251 

tion, self-assertion, self-subordination, etc.) it is a simple 
step to show diagrammatical ly how each interest impels an 
activity, which tends to precipitate itself into a social habit 
or institution. 

The way is now clear for the two next steps, the con- To make 

socio lo£rv 

cepts of causation and development. Here again why not real make 

follow the egocentric plan of starting with what the student ^* ®p,* 
° . ^ . . ° . centric 

knows? Ask him to write a brief but careful autobiog- 
raphy answering the questions — How have I come to be 
what I am? What influences personal or otherwise have 
played upon me? ^ The student is almost certain to lay 
hold of the principle of determining or controlling forces, 
and of evolution or change ; he may even be able to analyze 
rather clearly the different types of control which have 
cooperated in his development. 

From this start it is easy to develop the genetic con- 
cept of social life. The individual grows from simple to 
complex. Why not the race? Here introduce a compari- 
son between the social group known to the student, a re- 
tarded group (such as MacClintock's or Vincent's study of 
the Kentucky Mountaineers^) or a frontier community, 
and a contemporary primitive tribe (say, the Hupa or Seri 
Indians, Negritos, Bontoc Igorot, Bangala, Kafirs, Yakuts, 
Eskimo, or Andaman Islanders) . Require a detailed com- 
parison arranged in parallel columns on such points as 
size, variety of occupation, food supply, security of life, 
institutions, family life, language, religion, superstitions, 
and opportunities for culture. 

These two points of departure — the student's interest in 
his own personality and the community influences that have 
molded it, and the comparative study of a primitive group 
— should harmonize the two chief rival views of teaching 
sociologists; namely, those who urge the approach to 
sociology through anthropology and those who find the 
best avenue through the concrete knowledge of the socius. 

^ In order to secure frank statements, both these autobiographies and 

the time budgets may be handed in anonymously. 
^American Journal of Sociology, 4:1-20; 7:1-28, 171-187. 



252 College Teaching 

Moreover, it lays a foundation for a discussion of the 
antiquity of man, his kinship with other living things, and 
his evolution; that is, the biological presupposition of 
human society. Here let me testify to the great help which 
Osborn's photographs ^ of reconstructions of the Pithecan- 
thropos, Piltdown, Neanderthal, and Cro-Magnon types 
have rendered in clearing away prejudices and in vivifying 
the remote past. Religious apprehensions in particular 
may be allayed also by referring students to articles on 
race, man, evolution, anthropology, etc., in such compila- 
tions as the" Catholic Encyclopedia and Hastings' Encyclo- 
pedia of Religion and Ethics. The opening chapters in 
Marett's little book on Anthropology are so sanely and ad- 
mirably written that they also clear away many prejudices 
and fears. 

With such a concrete body of facts contrasting primitive 
with modern civilized social life the student will naturally 
inquire. How did these changes come about? At this point 
should come normally the answer in terms of what prac- 
tically all sociologists agree upon; namely, the three great 
sets of determining forces or phenomena, the three " con- 
trols": (1) the physical environment (climate, topography, 
natural resources, etc.) ; (2) man's own nature (psycho- 
physical factors, the factors in biological evolution, the 
role of instinct, race, and possibly the concrete problems 
of immigration and eugenics); (3) social heredity (folk- 
ways, customs, institutions, the arts of life, the methods 
of getting a living, significance of tools, distribution of 
wealth, standards of living, etc.). A blackboard diagram 
will show how these various factors converge upon any 
given individual. - 

The amplification of these three points will ordinarily 

make up the body of an introductory course so far as class 

work goes. Ethnography should furnish rich illustrative 

' material. But to make class discussions really productive 

the student's knowledge of his own community must be 

1 In his Men of the Old Stone Age. 

2 See such a diagram in Todd, Theories of Social Progress, page 240. 



The Teaching of Sociology 253 

drawn upon. And the best way of getting this correlation 
is through community surveys. The student should be re- 
quired as parallel laboratory work to prepare a series of 
chapters on his ward or part of his ward or village, cover- 
ing the three sets of determining factors. The instructor 
may furnish an outline of the topics to be investigated, 
or he may pass around copies of such brief survey out- 
lines as Aronovici's Knowing Ones Own Community or 
Miss Byington's What Social Workers Should Know about 
Their Own Communities; he may also refer them to any 
one of the rapidly growing number of good urban and 
rural surveys as models. But he should not give too much 
information as to where materials for student reports may 
be obtained. The disciplinary value of having to hunt out 
facts and uncover sources is second only to the value of ac- 
curate observation and effective presentation. If the aim 
of a sociology course is social efficiency, experience shows 
no better way of getting a vivid, sober, first-hand knowledge 
of community conditions. And there is likewise no surer 
way of compelling students to substitute facts for vapid 
wordiness and snap judgments. 

Toward the end of the course many of us have found it 
profitable to introduce a brief discussion of what may be 
called the highest term of the series; namely, the evolution 
of two or three typical institutions, say law and govern- 
ment, education, religion, and the family. These topics 
will serve to clinch the earlier discussions and to crystallize 
a few ideas on social control and perhaps even social 
progress. 

Normally such a course will close with a fuller defini- 
tion of the meaning of sociology, its content, its value in 
the study of other sciences, and, if time permits, a brief 
historical sketch of the development of sociology as a 
separate science. 

I have no certified advice to offer on the question of text- The use of a 
books. But the almost universal cry of sociology teachers study°^ 
is that so far no really satisfactory text has been produced. 
Some men still use Spencer, some write their own books, 



254 



College Teaching 



The social 
museum 



Field work : 
values and 
limitations 



some try to adapt to their particular needs such texts as 
are issued from time to time, some use none at all but de- 
pend upon a more or less well-correlated syllabus or set of 
readings. There -is undoubtedly a profitable demand for 
a good elementary source book comparable to Thomas's 
Source Book on Social Origins or Marshall, Wright, and 
Field's Materials for the Study of Elementary Economics. 
Nearly any text will need freshening up by collateral read- 
ing from such periodicals as The Survey or The New Re- 
public. In order to secure effective and correlated out- 
side reading, many teachers have found it helpful to re- 
quire the students to devote the first five or ten minutes of 
a class meeting once a week or even daily to a written 
summary of their readings and of class discussions. Such 
a device keeps readings fresh and enables the teacher to 
emphasize the points of contact between readings and class 
work. 

Every university should develop some sort of a social 
museum, to cover primitive types of men, the evolution of 
tools, arts of life, manners and customs, and contemporary 
social conditions. These can be displayed in the form of 
plaster casts, ethnographic specimens, photographs, lantern 
slides, models of housing, statistical charts, printed mono- 
graphs, etc. The massing of a series of these illustra- 
tions sometimes produces a profound effect. For example, 
the corridor leading to the sociology rooms at the Univer- 
sity of Minnesota has been lined with large photographs 
of tenement conditions, child labor, immigrant types, etc. 
The student's interest and curiosity have been heightened 
immensely. Once a semester, during the discussion of the 
economic factor in social life, we stage what is facetiously 
called " a display of society's dirty linen." The classroom 
is decorated with a set of charts showing the distribution 
of wealth, wages, cost of living, growth of labor unions 
and other organizations of economic protest. The mass 
effect is a cumulative challenge. 

Finally, a word about " field work " as a teaching de- 
vice. Field work usually means some sort of social service 



The Teaching of Sociology 255 

practice work under direction of a charitable agency, 
juvenile court, settlement, or playground. But beginning 
students are usually more of a liability than an asset to 
such agencies; they lack the time to supervise students' 
work, and field work without strict supervision is a farcical 
waste of time. If such agencies will accept a few students 
who have the learner's attitude rather than an inflated per- 
suasion of their social Messiahship, field work can become 
a very valuable adjunct to class work. In default of such 
opportunities the very best field work is an open-eyed study 
of one's own community, in the attempt to find out what 
actually is rather than to reform a hypothetical evil.^ 

Arthur J. Todd 

University of Minnesota 

^ While accepting full responsibility for the opinions herein set forth, 
I wish to express my appreciation of assistance rendered by a large 
group of colleagues in the American Sociological Society. 



XII 

THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

A. The Teaching of American History 

fiT^t^cher T T^^^^^^ ^^ ^ science attempts to explain the develop- 



H 



of history X X ment of civilization. The investigator of the sources 
of history must do his part in a truly scientific spirit. He 
must examine with the utmost scrutiny the many sources 
on which the history of the past has its foundation. He 
reveals facts, and through them the truth is established. 

But history is more than a science. It is an art. The 
investigator is not necessarily a historian, any more than 
a lumberman is an architect. The historian must use all 
available material, whether the result of his own researches 
or that of others. He must weigh all facts and deduct 
from them the truth. He must analyze, synthesize, organ- 
ize, and generalize. He must absorb the spirit of the people 
of whom he writes and color the narrative as little as pos- 
sible with his oiwn prejudices. But the historian must be 
more than a narrator; he must be an interpreter. As an 
interpreter he should never lose sight of the fact that all 
his deductions should be along scientific lines. Even then 
he will not escape errors. In pure science error is inad- 
missible. In history minor errors of fact are unavoidable, 
but their presence need not seriously affect the general 
conclusions. In spite of many misstatements of fact, a 
historical work may be substantially correct in the 
main things — in presenting and interpreting with true 
perspective the life and spirit of the people of whom it 
treats. 

The historian must be more than a chronicler and an 
interpreter. He must be master of a lucid, virile, at- 
tractive literary style. The power of expression, indeed, 
must be one of his chief accomplishments. The old notion, 
it is true, that history is merely a branch of literature is 

256 



The Teaching of History 257 



quite as erroneous as the later theory that history is a pure 

science and must be dissociated from all literary form. 

The pioneer investigator who patiently delves into The teacher 

sources and brings to light new material deserves high asthe*°''^ 

praise, but far rarer is the gift of the man who sees history teacher of 
•x J. . • 1 1 . , , the evolu- 

m Its true perspective, who can construct the right relation- tion of 

ships and can then reproduce the past in compelling civilization 
literary form. A historian without literary charm is like 
an architect who cares only for the utility and nothing for 
the grace and beauty of his building. 

The history teacher who slavishly follows old Thechrono- 
chronological methods has not kept pace with modern p°o?n?if 
progress; but the teacher who has discarded the chronologi- "^^^^ 
cal method has ventured without a compass on an unknown 
sea. Chronology, the sequence of events, is as necessary 
in history as distance and direction in geography. 

A modern school of history teachers would make "^^^ 
economics the sole background of history, would explain point^f*' 
all historic events from the economic standpoint — to ^^®^ 
which school this writer does not belong. Economics has 
played a great part in the course of human events, but it is 
only one of many causes that explain history. For ex- 
ample, the Trojan War (if there was a Trojan War), the 
conquests of Alexander, the Mohammedan invasions, were 
due chiefly to other causes. 

Nor would we agree with the school of modern educators "^^^ 
who would eliminate the culture studies from the curricu- viewpoint 
lum, retaining only those which make for present-day 
utilitarianism. A general education imparts power and 
enlarges life, and such an education should precede all 
technical and specialized training. If a young man with 
the solid foundation of a liberal education fail in this or 
that walk of life, the fault must be sought elsewhere than 
in his education. The late E. H. Harriman made a wise 
observation when he said that though a high school 
graduate may excel the college graduate in the same em- 
ployment for the first year, the latter would at length over- 
take and pass him and henceforth remain in the lead. 



258 



College Teaching 



Aims of 
history in 
the college 
curriculum 



What can 
the study 
of Ameri- 
can history 
give the 
college 
student? 



The uses of the study of history are many, the most im- 
portant of which perhaps is that it aids us in penetrating 
the present. Our understanding of every phase of modern 
life is no doubt strengthened by a knowledge of the past. 
It is trite but true to say that the study of history is a 
study of human nature, that a knowledge of the origin and 
growth of the institutions we enjoy makes for a good citi- 
zenship, that the study of history is a cultural study and 
that it ranks with other studies as a means of mental dis- 
cipline. Finally, the reading of history by one who has 
learned to love it is an abiding source of entertainment and 
mental recreation. It is one of the two branches of knowl- 
edge (the other being literature) which no intelligent per- 
son, whatever his occupation, can afford to lay aside after 
quitting school. 

The most important historical study is always that of 
one's own country. In our American colleges, therefore, 
the study of American history must take precedence over 
that of any other, though an exception may be made in case 
a student is preparing to teach the history of some other 
country or period. It must not be forgotten, however, by 
the student of American history that a study of the 
European background is an essential part of it. 

From its very newness the history of the United States 
may seem less fascinating than that of the older countries, 
and, indeed, it is true that the glamour of romance that 
gathers around the stories of royal dynasties, orders of 
nobility, and ancient castles is wanting in American history. 
But there is much to compensate for this. The coming of 
the early settlers, often because of oppression in their native 
land, their long struggle with the forest and with the wild 
men and wild beasts of the forest, the gradual conquest 
of the soil, the founding of cities, the transplanting of 
European institutions and their development under new 
environment — the successful revolt against political op- 
pression and the fearless grappling with the problem of 
self-government when nearly all governments in the world 
were monarchical — these and many other phases of Ameri- 



The Teaching of History 259 

can history furnish a most fascinating story as a mere 
story. 

But to the student of politics and history the most unique To the coi- 
and interesting thing, perhaps, in American history lies American 
in the fact that the United States is the first ereat country history 

must Tjg 

in the world's history in which the federal system has been presented as 
successful — if we assume that our experimental period the**sTccess 
has passed. Perhaps the greatest of all governmental ofdemoc- 
problems is just this: How to strike the right balance ^^^^ 
between these opposing tendencies — liberty and union, 
democracy and nationality — so that the people may enjoy 
the benefits of both. The United States has, no doubt, come 
nearer than any other country to solving this problem, and 
the fact greatly enhances the interest in our history. This 
is a question of political science rather than of history, 
it is true, but the history of any country and its govern- 
ment are inseparably bound together. 

In the regular college curriculum there should be, in utilitarian 
my opinion, two courses in American history. -vbIuq 

Course I — about 3 hours for one academic year (6 organiza- 
semester-hours) in the freshman or sophomore year, cover- *o°"rsesand 
ing the whole story of the United States. About one third methods of 
of the year's work should cover the Colonial and Revolu- 
tionary periods. Of the remaining two thirds of the year 
I should devote about half to the period since the Civil 
War. 

This course should be required of all students taking 
the A.B. degree and in all other liberal arts courses; an 
exception may be made in the case of those taking certain 
specialized scientific courses — for these students, the 
history required in the high school may be deemed sufficient. 

In this course a textbook is necessary, and if the class 
is large it is desirable that the text be uniform. The text 
should be written by a true historian with broad and com- 
prehensive views, by one who knows how to appraise his- 
toric values, and, if possible, by one who commands an at- 
tractive literary style. If the textbook is written by Dr. 
Dry-as-dust, however learned he may be, the whole burden 



260 College Teaching 

of keeping the class interested rests with the teacher; and, 
moreover, many of the students will never become lovers 
of the subject to such a degree as to make it a lifelong 
study. 

The exclusive lecture system is intolerable, and the same 
is true of the quiz. A teacher will do his best work if un- 
trammeled by rules. He should conduct a class in his own 
way and according to his own temperament. It is doubtful 
if the teacher who carefully plans and maps out the work 
he intends to present to the class is the most successful 
teacher. A teacher who is free, spontaneous, without a 
fixed method, ready in passing from the lecture to the quiz 
and vice versa at any moment, quick in asking unexpected 
questions, will usually have little trouble in keeping a class 
alert. Above all, a teacher of college history must explain 
the meaning of things with far greater fullness than is pos- 
sible in a condensed textbook, and it is a most excellent 
practice to ask opinions of members of the class on almost 
all debatable questions that may arise. The reason for 
this is obvious. 

The usual method of the writer, in as far as he has a 
method, is to spend the first fifteen or twenty minutes of 
the class hour in hearing reports from two or three students 
on special topics that have been assigned them a week or 
two before, topics that require library reference work and 
that could not possibly be developed from the textbook. 
These topics are not on the subject of the day's lesson, but 
of some preceding lesson. After commenting on these re- 
ports and often asking for opinions and comments of the 
class, we plunge into the day's lesson. 

The use of a current periodical in class should be en- 
couraged. It brings the learner into direct contact with 
life and often illuminates the past. 

Current events as presented in the daily papers should 
often be the subject of comment, but the daily newspaper 
is not suitable for class use. Even the weekly is, for 
several reasons, less desirable than the monthly. It must 
not be forgotten that the basal, fundamental work of the 



The Teaching of History 261 

class is, not to keep posted on current affairs, but to study 
the elements under the guidance of a textbook and an in- 
spiring teacher to interpret it. The weekly is less accurate 
than the monthly and less literary in form, and, moreover, 
it comes too often. It is apt to take too much time from 
the study of the fundamentals. The use of the periodical 
in the history class has probably come to stay and it should 
stay, but it should be only incidental and supplementary. 

Course II should be given in the junior or senior year. 
It should be elective, should cover at least two year -hours, 
and should be wholly devoted to the national period of 
American history. Only those having taken Course I 
should be eligible to this class. 

Every student who expects to read law, to enter journal- 
ism or politics, or to teach history or political science 
should take this course. The class will be smaller than 
in Course I. Uniform textbooks need not be required, or 
the class may be conducted without a text. Most of the 
work must be done from the library. 

It is assumed that the members of this class have a good 
knowledge of the narrative, and it is needless to follow it 
closely again. A better plan is to choose an important 
phase of the history here and there and study intensively. 
Much use should be made of original sources such as Presi- 
dents' messages. Congressional Record, speeches and writ- 
ings of the times, but the class must not ignore the fact 
that a vast amount of good material may be had from the 
historians. It must also be remembered that original re- 
search is for the graduate student and the specialist rather 
than for the undergraduate. 

In conclusion, I shall explain a method of examination ^g^*i?^ } ^® 
that I have frequently employed with apparently excellent instruction 
results. Two or three weeks before the time of the exami- 
nation I give the class a series of topics, perhaps fifty or 
more, carefully chosen from the entire subject that has been 
studied during the semester. Instead of having the usual 
review of the text, we talk over these subjects in class dur- 
ing the remainder of the semester. The examination is 



262 College Teaching 

oral, not written. The time for examination is divided into 
three, four, or five minute periods, according to the number 
in the class. When a student's name is called, he comes 
forward and draws from a box one of the topics and dilates 
on it before the class during his allotted time. If he fails 
on the first topic he may have another draw, but his grade 
will be reduced. A second failure would mean a "flunk," 
unless the class marks are very high. 

There are three or four real advantages in this form 
of examination: (1) It saves the teacher hours of labor in 
reading examination papers; (2) the teacher, in selecting 
the topics, omits the unimportant and chooses only the 
salient, leading subjects such as every student should 
master and remember; (3) the student, knowing that no 
new questions will be sprung for the examination, will be 
almost sure to be prepared on every question. Failures 
under this system have been much less frequent than under 
the old system of written examinations; (4) it practically 
eliminates all chance of cheating in examination. 

Henry W. Elson 

Thiel College 



The Teaching of History 203 



B. Modi<:rn European History 

TEACHING European history in coIle£i;es is, in many Hi»toryto 
...r r , . II. be taught 

ways, not (JilM;rf;nt Irorn toacriing any other history. aBanevo- 

In each instance it is to he rememhered that history in- pioces?^ 
eludes all activities of man and not merely his political life, 
that facts and data are not intrinsically valuahh; hut are 
merely a means to an end, that the end of history is to 
inform us where man came from, what experiences he 
passed through, and chiefly, what were the fundamental 
forces hehind his experiences. The emphasis should he put 
on the stimuli — economic, political, religious, or social — 
that lead man to act, instead of narrating his action. In 
a word, not what happened or when it happened, but why 
it happened, is of importance in college history. Stress- 
ing the stimuli in history will almost inevitably lead to 
treating history as a continuous or evolutionary process, 
which of itself greatly increases the interest of the subject. 

It is hiiifhiy desirable that in teaching modern history Because 

hlHtory Ih 
very much more time be given to recent history than has an evoiu- 

generally been the case. Frederick William 1 showed that *Jj°"/}n"lTJ"* 
he accepted this when he instructed the tutors of Frederick present 
(later the Great) to teach the history of the last fifty 
years to the exactest pitch. So important is this that, even 
when teaching early periods, constant contrasts or compari- 
sons with present conditions should be made, and the 
descent of ideas and institutions to modern times should 
be sketched, as it shows the student that remote events or 
institutions have a relationship to current life. 

Certain special aims of history have been advocated. Disciplinary 

V3#lll6H of 

It is held to be of disciplinary value, especially in history 
strengthening the memory. Though this is true, it is hardly 
a good reason for studying history, as the memory can be 
perfected on almost anything, on the dictionary, poetry, 
formulae, family records, gossip, or cans on grocery shelves, 
some of which may indeed be of more practical value than 
dates. In college, at least, history should aim to explain 



264 



College Teaching 



Organiza- 
tion of 
courses in 
history — 
What to 
teach in the 
beginning 
course 



Gradation 
of courses 
determined 
by content 



social tendencies and processes in a rational way rather 
than to develop the memory. The latter method tends to 
make the student passive and narrow, the former requires 
cerebration and develops breadth and depth of vision 
Understanding history, rather than memorizing it, has 
cultural value. To be* sure, understanding presupposes in- 
formation; but where there is a desire to understand, the 
process of seeking and acquiring the information is natural 
and tends to care for itself. 

History is not a prerequisite to professional careers in 
the way mathematics is to engineering; still, special 
periods, chiefly the modern, are highly useful to lawyers, 
journalists, publicists, statesmen, and others, each of whom 
selects what he finds most useful to his purposes. 

The point of view in history teaching is more material 
than the machinery or methods employed. These must and 
should vary with persons and conditions. Ordinarily, how- 
ever, it seems preferable to offer some part of European 
history as the first-year college course, because students 
have usually had considerable American history in high 
school, and the change adds new interest. Whether this 
course be general, medieval, or modern European history 
is of little importance, though, of course, medieval should 
precede modern history. In any case, the course should 
offer the student a good deal more than he may have had 
in high school, if for no other reason than to justify the 
profound respect with which he ordinarily comes to college. 
It should come often enough a week to grip the student, 
especially the history major. 

Gradation of courses in history on the basis of subject 
matter is largely arbitrary, and turns upon the method 
of presentation. General courses naturally precede period 
courses. A sound principle is to select courses adapted 
to the stages of the student's development. On this prin- 
ciple it has already been suggested that the first college 
course should be, not American but European history. 
English, ancient, medieval, or modern history immediately 
suggest themselves, with strong arguments in favor of the 



The Teaching of History 265 



first if but one freshman course is offered, as it forms 
a natural projection of American history into the past. 
Beyond this, what subject matter is offered in the several 
years is largely a matter of local convenience, as the college 
student understands the general history of all nations or 
periods about equally well. It is now clear, however, that 
the student should know more modern and contemporary 
European history than he has been getting, and the sound 
training of an American of the future should include 
thorough training in modern European history. 

Gradation based on the method of presentation is more Gradation 
nearly possible. Graduate courses presuppose training in ^'ay^Srde- 
the auxiliary sciences, in the necessary languages, in re- terminedby 
search methods, in the special field of research, as well as Saching°^ 
a knowledge of general history. This establishes a sort of 
sequence of the methods to be employed, irrespective of 
subject matter. 

The lecture method is convenient for the elementary Method of 

courses, especially if, as is so often the case, these have teaching in- 
, 1 r 1 T 1 troductory 

a large number oi students. It cannot, however, be gain- courses — 

said that convenience or, worse still, economy is a weak ^etho" 
argument in favor of the lecture course, especially for the 
first-year student. To him the lecture method is unknown, 
and he flounders about a good deal if he is left to work 
out his own salvation; and then, too, just when he needs 
personal direction and particularly when, as a youth away 
from home for the first time, he needs some definite and 
unescapable task that shall teach discipline and duty as 
well as give information, the lecture system gives him the 
maximum of liberty with the minimum of aid or direction. 
These considerations strongly advocate small classes for 
freshmen, frequent recitations, discussions, tests, papers and 
maps, library problems — in short, a laboratory system. 
Every student should always have at least one course in 
which he is held to rigid and exact performance. These 
courses should be required, no matter what the special 
field or period of history, and should form a sequence lead- 
ing to a degree and providing training for a technical and 



266 



College Teaching 



Topical 
method in 
European 
history 



A.ssigned 
reading 



professional career. In addition to these courses, designed 
to assure personal work and supervision, enough other, pre- 
sumably lecture, courses should be required to secure a 
general knowledge of history. Beyond that there are al- 
ways enough electives to satisfy any personal wish or whim 
of the student. 

There is much to be said, especially in modern history, 
for the topical treatment of institutions. In a very 
specialized course a single institution may be treated; but 
even in a general course, treating the several human institu- 
tions as evolutionary organisms seems preferable and is 
more interesting than a chronological narrative, which 
grows more inane the more general the course. Courses 
which come to modern times can trace existing institutions 
and their immediate antecedents, thus giving an advan- 
tage that many instructors neglect from the mere tradition 
that history does not come down to living man. No primi- 
tive superstition needs to be dispelled more than this, if 
history is to maintain its hold in the modern college. In- 
deed, whenever possible — which is always with modern 
history — a course should start from the present by dwell- 
ing on the existing conditions the historical antecedents of 
which are to be traced. If this is done, the student forth- 
with secures a vital interest and feels that he is trying to 
understand his own rather than past times. After this 
preliminary the past can be traced chronologically or 
topically as preferred, the textbook serving as a quarry 
for data, the teacher seeing to it that the change or progress 
toward the present condition is perceived and understood, 
and furnishing corroborative and analogous materials from 
the history of other nations and periods. 

It is the general practice of college courses in history 
to require outside reading. Though this rests on the sound 
ground that the student ought to get a large background and 
learn to know books and writers, it is very doubtful whether 
this aim is, in fact, achieved. The student often has too 
much work to permit of much outside reading, and often 
the library is too limited to give him a good choice, or 



The Teaching of History 267 

to permit him to keep a desirable book until he has finished 
reading it. Unguided reading is almost certainly a failure; 
reading guided only by putting a selected list of books 
before the student is not sure to be a success. The in- 
structor ought from time to time to tell his class some- 
thing about the books he suggests, and about their authors 
and their careers, viewpoints and merits, as a reader always 
profits by knowing these things. As the reading of snatches 
from collateral books is hardly profitable, so the perusal 
of longer histories is often impossible, and generally con- 
fines the student for a long time to the minutiae of one 
period while the class is going forward. In view of these 
difficulties there is much to be said in favor of putting 
a large textbook into the hands of a class, and requiring 
a thorough reading and understanding of it, and corres- 
pondingly reducing outside readings. If collateral read- 
ing is demanded, it is a good plan to require students 
to read a biography or a work on some special institution 
falling within the scope of the course, — some selected 
historical novel even, — for in that way the student reads, 
as he will in later life, something he selects instead of a 
required number of pages, a specific thing is covered, an 
author's acquaintance is made, and therefore a significant 
test can be conducted. Furthermore, as some students will 
buy special volumes of this kind, the pressure on the library 
is reduced. Direct access to reference shelves is always 
recommended. One of our universities has a system of 
renting preferred books to students. 

Tests on outside reading are always difficult, but they J^^^*^^°° 
must be employed if the reading is not to become a farce, reading 
By having weekly reading reports on uniform cards, one 
can often arrange groups of students who have read the 
same thing and can therefore be tested by a single question. 
By extending this over several weeks the majority of 
students, even in a large class, can be tested with relatively 
few questions. Some instructors require students to hand 
in their reading notes, others check up the books the 
students use in the library, still others have consultation 



268 



College Teaching 



Miscellane- 
ous aids in 
teaching 
history 



The prob- 
lem of suit- 
able exami- 
nation 



The worth 
of topical 
or institu- 
tional treat- 
ment 



periods in which they inquire into the student's read- 
ing. Quiz sections, if there are any, offer a good oppor- 
tunity to test collateral reading. 

Map making, coordinated with the recitations and so 
designed as to require more than mere tracing, is desir- 
able in introductory courses. The imaginative historical 
theme written by the student is employed — and success- 
fully, it is declared — in one college. A syllabus is highly 
useful in the hands of students in lecture courses. It can 
be mimeographed at comparatively slight expense for each 
lecture, thus permitting changes in successive years — a 
distinct advantage over the printed syllabus. 

How to give a fair and telling examination is the 
college teacher's perennial problem. The less he teaches 
and insists on facts and details, the greater his quandary. 
A majority of students incline to parrot what they have 
heard, to the dismay of the teacher who wants them to 
make the subject their own. Hence tests calling the 
memory only into play do not satisfy the true teacher or 
the thoughtful student. At the least there should be some 
questions requiring constructive or synthetic thinking by 
the student. Above all, the instructor of introductory work 
should form a first-hand personal opinion of the student 
by requiring him to come to the office for consultation. 
Nothing can take the place of the personal touch. Quiz 
masters are better than no touch; but they are a poor sub- 
stitute for the small class and direct contact, even if the in- 
structor is not one of the masters of the profession. 

The topical or institutional treatment of history has been 
mentioned above as being particularly applicable to 
modern history. H carefully worked out beforehand it 
can be made to embrace virtually everything — certainly 
everything significant — that is contained either in the text 
or in a chronological narrative. To be sure, a topical 
treatment of this kind places more emphasis on the common 
experiences of mankind than does national history, and, 
as some nations or peoples precede others in a given develop- 
ment, history becomes continuous instead of fragmentary. 



The Teaching of History 



269 



Perhaps, too, the way certain matters are introduced into 
" continuous " history may appear forced, unless it be re- 
membered that this impression is created merely by its 
dissimilarity from the usual interpretation, which is just 
as arbitrary and forced until one gets accustomed to it. 
It will be serviceable in arranging a topical treatment 
of any period of history, which shall show a sense of his- 
torical continuity and keep in mind the fundamental 
stimuli and causes of human action, to note that virtually 
all human interests can be classified under one of the fol- 
lowing six heads: physical, ecomomic, social, religious, 
political, and intellectual (or cultural). Though these are 
never wholly isolated and are always interactive, one or the 
other may be specially significant in a given era, and thus 
we speak of a religious age, an age of rationalism, or the 
period of the industrial revolution. 

SUGGESTED TOPICAL OUTLINE OF MODERN 
EUROPEAN HISTORY 

To apply this more specifically to modern European his- 
tory, there follows an outline of topics. It is general to 
about 1789, and more detailed for the period since that time 
(IV below) , the endeavor being to show how a topical treat- 
ment of the development of democracy can be made to in- 
clude practically everything of significance. There are cer- 
tain cautions necessary here: that the outline is suggestive 
only, that it does not pretend or aim to be complete, that 
specific data often found in the sub-heads are to serve as 
illustrations and not as a complete statement of sub-topics; 
and that it is in fact merely a skeleton which can be extended 
and amplified indefinitely by insertions. 

I. Background of the modern period. 

A. Economic and social conditions at the close of 
the Middle Age. 

B. Political nature of feudalism. 

The governments of the 15th century. 

C. The medieval church. 



Classifica- 
tion in topi- 
cal treat- 
ment 



270 College Teaching 

II. The development of religious liberty. 

A. The Reformation. 

B. Varieties of Protestant sects, from state churches 
to individualistic sects. 

C. The Religious Wars, and toleration. 

III. Absolute monarchy. 

A. Dynastic states. 

B. Dynastic wars and the balance of power. 

IV. The development of democracy. 

A. The dynastic feudal state (Ancien Regime). 

1. Description of the Ancien Regime. 

2. Proponents of the Ancien Regime. 
Dynasties (divine right monarchs). 
Feudal landlords. 

Higher clergy and state churches. 

The army command (younger sons of the 

nobility). 

The schools (education for privileged 

classes only). 

B. The revolutionary elements. 

1. The dissatisfied feudal serf. 

2. The intellectuals, rationalists, political the- 
orists. 

The " social compact." . . Popular sover- 
eignty. 

3. Religious dissenters. 

4. Industrial elements. 

a. The Industrial Revolution. 

Resulting in exportation, markets, and 
laissez-faire doctrines. 

b. The bourgeoisie (employers). . The 
Third Estate. 

c. The proletariat. . Unorganized labor ele- 
ments. 

C. The Revolutionary Period, 1789-1800. 

1. Triumph of bourgeoisie over feudal aristoc- 



The Teaching of History 271 

racy in France, 1789-1791. Limited mon- 
archy. Mirabeau. 

2. Increasing influence and rise to control of 
France of the Parisian proletariat. The 
Republic. . The Terror. <, Robespierre. 

3. Radiation of revolutionary ideas to other 
nations. 

4. Wars between revolutionary France and 
monarchical Europe. 

The rise of Napoleon. 

D. The decline of the revolutionary elements, 1800- 
1815. 

1. France converted from a republic to an 
empire by Napoleon. 

2. The Napoleonic Wars. 

a. Reveal Napoleon's dynastic ambition. 

b. Lead Europe to combine against him 
and to blame democratic ideas for the 
sorrows of the time. 

c. Result in the defeat of Napoleon and the 
triumph of anti-democratic or reaction- 
ary elements. 

E. The fruits of the principle of popular sover- 
eignty during the 19th century (chronologically 
England and France lead the other countries in 
most of these developments) .^ 

1. Constitutions, embodying ever-increasing 
popular rights and powers. 

2. Extension of suffrage. Political parties 
and party politics. 

3. The spirit of nationality. 
Independence of Greece and Belgium. 
Unification of Italy and Germany. 

1 This summary of the consequences of the doctrines of democracy is 
allowed to break into the topical development of the outline, as it 
gives a sort of general introduction to tendencies since 1815. It will 
not escape the teacher that he could treat history since 1815 by tak- 
ing up in order the topics given under this heading. 



272 College Teaching 

National revivals in Poland, Bulgaria, Ser- 

via, Rumania, Bohemia, Finland, Ireland, 

and elsewhere. 

Pan-Germanism, Pan-Slavism, Imperial 

Federation. 

4. Class consciousness and strife. 

Feudal aristocratic class — leans toward 
absolute monarchy. 

Bourgeoisie (employing capitalists) — leans 
toward limited monarchies or republics. 
Labor — leans toward socialism. (The 
other elements in the society are slow in 
developing a group consciousness.) 

5. Abolition of feudal forms and tenures. 
Fight on great landlords. Encouragement 
of independent farmers. 
Emancipation and protection of peasants: 
France, 1789; Prussia, 1808; Austria, 1848; 
Russia, 1861. 

6. Social, socialistic, and humanitarian legis- 
lation. 

Factory acts, minimum wage laws, indus- 
trial insurance, old age insurance, labor ex- 
changes, child labor laws, prison reform 
acts, revision of penal codes, abolition of 
slavery and slave trade, government control 
or ownership of railways, telephones, tele- 
graph, and mails. 

7. Opposition to state or national churches. 
Disestablishment agitations. . Separation of 
church and state. 

8. Demand for free public schools to replace 
church or other private schools. State lay 
schools in England. . Suppression of teach- 
ing orders in France. . Kulturkampf in Ger- 
many. . Expulsion of Jesuits. . Tendency 
toward compulsory non-sectarian education. 

9. Imperialism. 

Industrial societies depend on imports, ex- 



The Teaching of History 273 



ports, and markets as means of keeping 
labor employed and people prosperous. 
This means export of capital, hence, 
plans for colonies, closed doors, preferen- 
tial markets, and demands for the protec- 
tion of citizens abroad and political stabil- 
ity in backward areas. 
Partition of Africa, Asia, and Near East. 
10. Militarism. 

Expansion and colonial acquisition by one 
country exclude another, thus unsettling the 
balance of power. Therefore rival nations 
depend on force and go in for military 
and naval programs. 
F. The conflict between reactionary and bourgeois 
interests, 1815-1848. 

1. Reactionary elements in control — opposed 
to democracy and revolutionary doctrines. 
a. Restore Europe as nearly as possible on 
old lines at Vienna, 1815. 
Ignore liberal tendencies and national 
sentiments. 
h. Seek to maintain status quo. 
Metternich. . Holy Alliance. 
Carlsbad Decrees. . Congresses of Trop- 
pau, Laibach, Verona. . Intervention in 
Naples, Piedmont, and Spain. 
Proposal to restore Latin America to 
Monarchy. 

Opposed by Great Britain in compliance 
with bourgeois interests. 
Monroe Doctrine, 
c. Failed to prevent: 

Greek revolution and independence (na- 
tional movement). 

Separation of Belgium from the Nether- 
lands (national). 
Revival of liberal demands in various 



274 College Teaching 

quarters, producing the revolution of 
1830 in France and elsewhere. 
2. The ascendancy of the bourgeoisie, 1830- 
1848. 

a. Industrialism on the continent. 

b. The bourgeois (capitalist employer) se- 
cures political power to advance his in- 
terests. 

Revolution of 1830. 

Reform bill of 1832. 

Legislation against labor organizations 

and for tariffs favoring trade. 

c. The development of organized labor and 
socialism. 

Legislation hostile to labor. Chartism. 
Labor in France, Germany, and Belgium. 
Spread of socialist doctrines. 

d. The Revolution of 1848. 

Socialist republican state in France, 
1848. 

The winning of constitutions in Prus- 
sia, Austria, and elsewhere — breach in 
the walls of reaction. 
G. The broadening base of democracy, 1848-1914. 

1. The organization of labor. 

2. The spread of socialistic views and of class 
consciousness. Karl Marx. 

3. The resistance of the old aristocratic class 
and the bourgeoisie, who gradually fuse to 
form the conservative element in all nations. 
Napoleon III restores the Empire in France. 
In Austria and Prussia, Bismarck and 
Francis Joseph II retrieve losses of 1848, 
Disraeli and Conservatives in England. 

4. The progress toward universal suffrage 
after 1865, strengthening political position 
of lower classes. 

Vindication of democratic government 



The Teaching of History 275 



through triumph of the North in the 
United States gave impetus to democracy 
abroad. 

Electoral reform bills in Great Britain, 
1867, 1884, 1885. 

Franco-Prussian War and the Third French 
Republic. . Universal suffrage. 
Unification of Germany and universal suf- 
frage. 

Russian Revolution, 1917. 
Woman suffrage. 
5. Popular sovereignty and its consequences. 

a. Triumph of republicans and radicals in 
France over monarchists and clericals. 

b. Liberal ministries in United Kingdom. 
Lloyd George Budget. . Parliament Act. 
Social legislation. 

c. Growth of Social Democratic party in 
Germany. 

Bismarck and state socialism. 

d. In recent times the many divergent politi- 
cal parties fall rather instinctively into 
three groups which have opposing views 
and policies on almost every question, 
and which may be called: 

Conservatives (Tories, aristocrats, 
monarchists, Junkers, clericals, capital- 
ists, imperialists, militarists) ; peas- 
ants and farmers, being conservative, 
are usually politically allied to this 
group. 

Liberals (progressives, democrats, 
labor parties. Socialists, social demo- 
crats. Dissenters, anti-imperialists, 
anti-militarists). 

Radicals, Bolsheviki or revolutionists 
seeking change of the economic and 
social order. 



276 College Teaching 

6. Effects of the war. 

a. Extensive nationalization and socializa- 
tion of industry and human rights in all 
belligerent countries. 

b. Develops into a " war for democracy," 
and for moral as opposed to materialistic 
aims. 

c. Culminates in an attempt to secure a 
righteous and lasting peace through the 
instrumentality of a league of nations. 

Edward Krehbiel 

Leland Stanford Junior University 

Bibliography 

TEXTS 

Andrews, C. M. Historical Development of Modern Europe. Two 

vols. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1900. 
Hayes, Carlton J. H. A Political and Social History of Modern 

Europe. Two vols. The Macmillan Company, 1916. 
Robinson, J. H., and Beard, C. A. The Development of Modern 

Europe. Two vols. Ginn and Co., 1907, 1908. 
Schevill, Ferdinand. A Political History of Modern Europe. 

Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907. 

PERIOD HISTORIES 

Bourne, Henry Eldredge. The Revolutionary Period in Europe. 
The Century Company, 1914. 

Cambridge Modern History. Thirteen vols, and maps. I, the Renais- 
sance; n. The Reformation; HI, The Wars of Religion; IV, The 
Thirty Years' War; V, The Age of Louis XIV; VI, The Eigh- 
teenth Century; VII, The United States; VIII, The French Rev- 
olution; IX, Napoleon; X, The Restoration; XI, The Growth of 
Nationalities; XII, The Latest Age; XIII, Genealogical Tables 
and Lists and General Index; also on atlas, in another volume. 
Cambridge, the University Press, 1902-1912. 

Hazen, Charles Downer. Europe since 1815. Henry Holt & Co., 
1910. 

Lindsay, T. M. A History of the Reformation. Two vols. Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1906-1907. 

Lowell, E. J. The Eve of the French Revolution. 

ScHAPiRO, Jacob Salwyn. Modern and Contemporary European His- 
tory. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918. 



The Teaching of History 277 

Wakeman, H. O. The Ascendancy of France. The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1894. 

SOURCE BOOKS 

Anderson, Frank Maloy. The Constitutions and Other Select Doc- 
uments Illustrative of the History of France, 1789-1901. H. W. 
Wilson Company, Minneapolis, 1904. 

Fling, Fred Morrow. Source Problems of the French Revolution. 
Harper and Brothers, 1913. 

Robinson, J. H. Readings in European History. Two vols. Ginn 
and Co., 1904. 

Readings in European History. Abridged Edition. Ginn and 

Co., 1906. 

Robinson, J. H., and Beard, C. A. Readings in Modern European 
History. Two vols. Ginn and Co., 1908. 

Readings in Modern European History. Abridged Edition. 

Ginn and Co., 1909. 

ATLASES 

Cambridge Modern History. Volume of Maps. Cambridge, the Uni- 
versity Press, 1912. 

Dow, Earle W. Atlas of European History. Henry Holt & Co., 
1909. 

Droysen, Gustav. Allgemeiner historischer Kandatlas. Velhagen 
und Klasing, Leipzig, 1886. 

Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. A School Atlas of English History. 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1910. 

Poole, Reginald Lane. Historical Atlas of Modern Europe from the 
Decline of the Roman Empire. H. Frowde, 1896-1902. 

PuTZGER, Friedrich Wilhelm. Historischer Schul-atlas zur alten, 
mittleren, und neunen Geschichte. Velhagen und Klasing, Leip- 
zig, 1910. 

Shepherd, William Robert. Historical Atlas. Henry Holt & Co., 
1911. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL 

Adams, Charles Kendall. A Manual of Historical Literature. 

Harper and Brothers, 1888. 
Andrews, Gambrill, and Tall. A Bibliography of History for 

Schools and Libraries. Longmans, Green & Co., 1911. 

PEDAGOGICAL 

Committee of Seven, American Historical Association. The Study of 

History in the Schools. The Macmillan Company, 1899. 
Committee of Five, American Historical Association. The Study of 



278 College Teaching 

History in the Secondary Schools. The Macmillan Company, 
1911. 

Dunn, Arthur William. The Social Studies in Secondary Educa- 
tion. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
No. 28, 1916. 

Johnson, H, The Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary 
Schools. 1915. 

Robinson, James Harvey. The New History; Essays Illustrating the 
Modern History Outlook. The Macmillan Company, 1912. 

HISTORICAL FICTION 

Baker, E. A, History in Fiction. Two vols. E. P. Dutton & Co., 

1907. 
NiELD, Jonathan. A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and Tales. 

G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

PERIODICALS 

The American Historical Review. Published by the American His- 
torical Association, Washington, D. C. 

The History Teacher's Magazine. McKinley Publishing Company, 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 



XIII 
THE TEACHING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 

CERTAIN phases of what is known as political science Scope of 
form to no small degree the content of courses in science 
other branches of study. The engineering schools in their 
effort to set forth the regulation of public utilities with 
respect to engineering problems have begun to offer courses 
which deal extensively with politics and government. In 
political and constitutional history, considerable attention 
is given to the organization and administration of the vari- 
ous divisions of government. To a greater degree, how- 
ever, the allied departments of economics and sociology 
have begun, in the development of their respective fields, 
to analyze matters which are primarily of a political na- 
ture. Especially in what is designated as applied eco- 
nomics and applied sociology there is to be found material 
a large part of which relates directly to the regulation and 
administration of governmental affairs. Thus in portions 
of the courses designated as labor problems, money and 
banking, public finance, trust problems, public utility regu- 
lation, problems in social welfare, and immigration, pri- 
mary consideration is frequently given to government ac- 
tivities and to the influences and conditions surrounding 
government control. 

While these courses, then, deal in part with subject matter 
which belongs primarily to the science of politics and 
while any comprehensive survey of instruction in political 
science would include an account of the phases of the sub- 
ject presented in other departments, for the present pur- 
pose it has been advisable to limit the consideration of 
the teaching of political science to the subjects usually 
offered under that designation.^ Some attention, however, 

1 The courses usually given in departments of political science are : 
1. American government, (a) National, (b) State and local, (c) 
Municipal. 

279 



280 



College Teaching 



Courses 
usually of- 
fered in 
political 
science 



will be given later to the relation of political science to 
allied subjects. 

A difference of opinion exists as to the meaning of politi- 
cal science, some institutions using the term in a broad sense 
to embody courses offered in history, economics, politics, 
public law, and sociology, and others giving the word a 
very narrow meaning to include a few specialized courses 
in constitutional and administrative law. There is, never- 
theless, a strong tendency to have the term " political sci- 
ence " comprise all of the subjects which deal primarily 
with the organization and the administration of public 
affairs. 

Through an exhaustive survey made by the Committee 
on Instruction of the American Political Science Associa- 

2. General political science. 

3. Comparative government. 

4. English government. 

5. International law. 

6. Diplomacy. 

7. Jurisprudence or elements of law. 

8. World politics, 

9. Commercial law. 

10. Roman law. 

11. Administrative law. 

12. Political theories (History of political thought). 

13. Party government. 

14. Colonial government. 

15. Legislative methods and legislative procedure. 

16. Current political problems. 

17. Municipal corporations. 

18. Law of officers and taxation. 

19. Seminar. 

20. Additional courses, such as the government of foreign countries, 

the regulation of public utilities, and the political and legal 
status of women. 
Cf. The Teaching of Government, page 137. Published by the 
Macmillan Company, 1916. With the permission of the publishers 
some extracts from the report of the committee on instruction have 
been used. The report should be consulted for the presentation of 
data and for a further consideration of some questions of instruc- 
tion which cannot be taken up fully within the compass of this 
chapter. 



The Teaching of Political Science 281 



tion, covering instruction in political science in colleges 
and universities, the subjects which are usually offered may 
be indicated in two groups: 

LEADING COURSES FOR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES'^ 

(Given in order of number of instruction hours, with 
highest ranked first.) 

A. Major Courses. 

1. American government — including national, state, 

and local. 

2. General political science — mainly political theory, 

with some comparative government. 

3. Comparative government — devoted chiefly to a 

study of England, France, Germany, and the 
United States. 

4. International law. 

5. Commercial law. 

6. Municipal government. 

7. Constitutional law. 

B. Minor Courses. 

1. Jurisprudence, or elements of law. 

2. Political theories. 

3. Diplomacy. 

4. State government. 

5. Political parties. 

6. Government of England. 

7. Legislative methods of procedure. 

8. Roman law. 

9. Regulation of social and industrial affairs. 

While the purposes and objects of instruction in this rather 
extensive group of subjects vary considerably, it seems de- 
sirable to analyze the chief objects in accordance with 
which political science courses are presented to students 
of collegiate grade. 

^ Cf. The Teaching of Government, page 182. 



282 



College Teaching 



Aims of 
instruction 
in govern- 
ment 



1. Training 
for citizen- 
ship 



The aims of instruction in government are (1) to train 
for citizenship; (2) to prepare for professions such as law, 
teaching, business, and journalism; (3) to train experts and 
prepare specialists for government positions; (4) to pro- 
vide facilities and lead students into research material and 
research methods. Each of these aims affects to a cer- 
tain extent a different class of students and renders the 
problem as to methods of instruction correspondingly 
difficult. 

In a certain sense all instruction may be looked upon 
as giving training for the duties and responsibilities 
of citizenship, and undoubtedly a great deal of in- 
struction in other subjects aids in the process of citizenship 
training. Nevertheless, a heavy responsibility rests upon 
departments of political science to lead students into 
tbe extensive literature on government as well as to in- 
struct them with respect to the organizations and methods 
by which the political and social affairs are being 
conducted. In short, one of the primary aims of govern- 
ment instruction and one which is kept foremost in the 
arrangement of courses is elementary training for the 
average student in the principles, the practices, and the 
technique of governmental affairs. For such citizenship 
training, which is usually given in large elementary classes, 
a special method of instruction and system of procedure 
are pursued. It is necessary to provide subject matter 
which is informational in character, as the lack of knowl- 
edge of the governments of home and foreign countries 
is ordinarily appalling, and which will open up by way 
of discussion and comparison many of the leading prob- 
lems of modern politics. More necessary and indispens- 
able is a method of study which will aid in pursuing 
inquiries along the many and varied lines which will de- 
volve upon the citizen performing his multifarious duties 
and discharging his many responsibilities. As many of 
the students will take but a single course, the opening up 
to them of the vast field of government literature is one of 



The Teaching of Political Science 283 

the aims to be constantly kept in mind. Moreover, while 
all of the above are essential matters in the elementary 
courses, the most important consideration of all is that 
the teaching of politics and government will have utterly 
failed unless there are created a desire and an interest which 
will lead into many lines of investigation beyond those 
offered in a single introductory course. The development 
of this interest and appreciation is the all-important ob- 
ject. 

Many who enter the introductory courses in govern- 2. Prepara- 
ment select the subject with the idea of continuing their professions 
preparation for professional life in their chosen fields. 
Among the professions which particularly seek instruction 
in government are chiefly law, teaching, business, and 
journalism. For these groups of students, many of whom 
continue the study of the subject for several years, often 
going on into the advanced courses in graduate depart- 
ments, it is recognized that beginning work which is too 
general and discursive may be less useful than a specialized 
course which may be rounded out by a series of corre- 
lated courses. Consequently, there is a question whether 
the professional student, interested in the study of govern- 
ment, should begin his work under the same conditions 
and with the same methods as the student who does not 
expect to continue the subject. The number of those who 
are preparing for the professions is often so large as to 
require separate consideration and to affect seriously the 
determination of the method and content of the introductory 
course. This difficulty is obviated where professional 
courses are provided, giving instruction in government and 
citizenship, as is now the practice in certain law schools, in 
some departments of journalism, and in a few engineering 
schools. For each of the major professions in which gov- 
ernment instruction is particularly sought a different type 
of course is desired. For the law student comparative 
public law, jurisprudence, and specialized government 
courses in various fields are usually demanded. For the 
journalist, general subjects dealing with specific countries 



284 



College Teaching 



3. Training 
for public 
service and 
preparation 
of special- 
ists for gov- 
ernment 
positions 



and with the political practices of all governments are re- 
garded of special benefit. For the teaching profession 
the study of some one line and specialization in a par- 
ticular field seem to be a necessity. Which is the better, 
such specialized government courses for professional 
students, or a general course for all introductory students, 
is still an undetermined problem. The fact that most of 
the conditions and problems of citizenship are similar for 
all these groups and that there is great difficulty in pro- 
viding separate instruction for each group renders it neces- 
sary to provide an elementary course which is adapted 
to the needs and which will serve the purpose of the citi- 
zen seeking a general introduction in one course and 
the professional student who seeks entrance to advanced 
courses. 

Colleges and universities have recently begun to give 
special instruction for the training of those who desire to 
enter the government service. A few institutions are offer- 
ing courses and a considerable number are beginning to 
adapt instruction which will be of service not only to 
those who anticipate entrance into some form of public 
work, but also to those who are engaged in performing pub- 
lic service in some department of government. As a matter 
of fact, the training of specialists must in large measure be 
cared for by professional and technical schools, such as the 
provision for directors of public health by medical 
schools, the training of sanitary engineers by the engineer- 
ing schools, the training of accountants, statisticians, and 
financial experts by the schools of commerce and finance. 
Nevertheless, departments offering instruction in general 
political subjects are expected to give some consideration 
to and to make special arrangements for advanced courses in 
the way of preparing those who seek to enter the various 
divisions of the government service, such as the consular 
and diplomatic affairs, charitable and social work, and 
the administrative regulation of public utilities, industrial 
affairs, and the public welfare. Through the introduction 
of specialized courses in municipal, state, and national ad- 



The Teaching of Political Science 285 



ministration it is possible to prepare more adequately for 
various branches of public administration. 

Although research methods* and graduate courses of in- 
struction in political science developed rather slowly, a 



4, Special 
courses in 
research 



substantial beginning has been made by the universities in and 
the offering of advanced courses in which a specialized methods 
study is made of some of the problems of government and 
the methods of administration. Through these courses valu- 
able contributions have been made to the historical and 
comparative phases of the subject and to some extent to the 
analytical study of government in operation. The primary 
aim has been to provide an avenue and an opportunity 
for those who look forward to teaching or to entering 
the field of special research work in politics and govern 
mental affairs. The results of the research work have been 
rendered available to government officials and departments 
through bureaus of research and other agencies devised to 
aid in improving the public service. Only a few universities 
separate the graduate from the undergraduate students, and 
as a result the instruction cannot be of strictly graduate 
character and quality. Much of the present research is 
done with small groups of students in a seminar where 
personal direction is given to investigations and where the 
methods of research are developed under direct super- 
vision. 

Any determination of the value of a subject in the 
school curriculum is necessarily based upon the opinions 
of individuals whose judgment will vary in large measure 
according to their respective training, influences, and predi- 
lections. The value of the subject which is usually placed 
first is its usefulness in imparting information. Much in- 
struction in government is descriptive and informational in 
character and is offered primarily to increase the stock 
of knowledge and to give information with respect to the 
present and the future interests of the citizen. While 
this descriptive material has served a useful purpose, it 
is doubtful whether, as in the formal civics of the public 
schools, the method of imparting information ha^ not been 



Value of 
the subject 



286 College Teaching 

used so extensively as to have a detrimental effect. Too 
much attention has been given to the memorization of facts 
and the temporary accumulation of information more or 
less useful, and correspondingly too little to thinking on the 
great political and social issues of the day. 

When governments are engaging in endless activities 
which affect the welfare of society in its social and 
aesthetic, as well as political aspects, government instruc- 
tion becomes increasingly necessary and valuable as a 
cultural study. The recent development in European po- 
litical affairs has impressed upon the citizens of this country 
as never before the results of a profound ignorance with re- 
spect to conditions in foreign countries. While the knowl- 
edge of the affairs of the great nations of the world has 
hitherto appeared advisable, it has now come to be regarded 
as a necessity. From the standpoint of culture a knowl- 
edge of the institutions of one's own country and of other 
countries is one of the cardinal elements of education and 
provisions for such instruction ought to be placed among the 
few primary topics in the preparation of all educational pro- 
grams. If culture involves an understanding of the social 
and political conditions of the past and present as well 
as some appreciation of the problems which confront the 
individual in his activities of life, then the study of both 
history and government must be given a foremost rank 
among the subjects now classified as cultural. 

With respect to formal discipline government instruc- 
tion has been rated lower than that of the more exact sub- 
jects, the languages and mathematics. While it is true that 
from the standpoint of formal discipline and exact methods 
government instruction has not measured up to that of some 
other subjects, it must be remembered that the standard- 
ization of instruction, and the methods pursued in other 
subjects, have developed through a long process of years 
to the present effectiveness in mental discipline. As the 
study of government becomes more specialized, the mate- 
rial in the field worked into more concrete form for pur- 
poses of instruction, the methods better developed with the 



The Teaching of Political Science 287 

formulation of standard plans and principles, the disci- 
plinary value of the subject will be increased. The develop- 
ment now in process is bringing about changes which will 
greatly enhance not only the usefulness but in a large 
measure the disciplinary value of the subject. 

Instruction in government is usually offered only to Place in col- 
students who have acquired sophomore standing. A few j-ifuium 
institutions now give a course in government in the fresh- 
man year, and the practice seems to be meeting with suc- 
cess. Sentiment is growing in favor of this plan. The 
argument presented for this change is that a large per- 
centage of the freshman class does not continue college 
work, and consequently many students have no oppor- 
tunity to become acquainted with the special problems of 
politics and government. To meet the need of those who 
spend but one year in college, it is claimed that an intro- 
duction should be given to the study of government prob- 
lems. While there are strong reasons in support of this 
change, the prevailing sentiment for the present favors 
the requirement of a year's work in college as a prerequi- 
site. The advocates of this arrangement contend that in 
view of the fact that most of the high schools are now giving 
a half of a year or a year to civic instruction on somewhat 
the same plan as would be necessary in a first-year college 
course, it seems better from the standpoint of the student 
as well as of the department to defer the introductory 
course until better methods of study and greater maturity 
of mind are acquired. 

Sophomore standing is the only prerequisite for the ele- 
mentary course except in a few institutions where the selec- 
tion of a course in history in the freshman year is re- 
quired. A few colleges are offering to freshmen an in- 
troductory course in the social sciences, comprising mainly 
some elementary material from economics, sociology, and 
political science. While there are some advantages in the 
effort to give a general introduction to the social sciences, 
no practicable content or method for such a course has 
yet been prepared. Moreover, it seems likely now that such 



288 



College Teaching 



The intro- 
ductory 
course 



a general introduction will be attempted either in the 
junior or in the senior high school. For advanced work 
in the senior high school and for the introductory college 
course reason and practice both favor a separation of 
these subjects, with close correlation and constant consider- 
ation of the interrelations. 

It is customary to introduce students to the study of 
government through a general course in American govern- 
ment, dealing briefly with national, state, and local insti- 
tutions. Other subjects, such as comparative government, 
— including a consideration of some representative foreign 
countries along with American government, — an introduc- 
tory course in political science, and international law, are 
sometimes used as basic courses to introduce students to 
subsequent work. The general practice in the introductory 
course seems to be approaching a standard in which either 
American government is made the basis of study, with 
comparisons from European practices and methods, or Euro- 
pean governments are studied, with attention by way of 
comparison to the American system of government. The 
Committee of Seven of the American Political Science Asso- 
ciation offered the following suggestions relative to the 
introductory course, which it seems well to quote in full. 
The Committee recommended that: 



American government be taken as the basis for the introductory 
course because it is convinced that there is an imperative need for a 
more thorough study of American institutions, because the opportunity 
for this study is not now offered in any but a few of the best sec- 
ondary schools, and because it is exceedingly important that the 
attention of an undergraduate be directed early in his course to a 
vital personal interest in his own government, national, state, and 
local. Instruction in political science is rarely given until the second 
or third year of the college work, and thus unless American govern- 
ment is selected for the first course only a small percentage of stu- 
dents receive encouragement and direction in the study of political 
affairs with which they will constantly be expected to deal in their 
ordinary relations as citizens. But the committee believes that this 
study of American government can be distinctly vitalized by the intro- 
duction of such comparisons with European practices and forms as 
will supply the student with a broader basis of philosophical con- 



The Teaching of Politic al Science 289 

elusions as to constitutional development and administrative practices. 
Ihe Committee is of the opinion that despite the very marked in- 
crease of courses m American government within the past few years 
one of the immediate needs is the further extension and enlargement 
ol these courses. In only a few institutions is enough time given to 
the subject to permit anything more than the most cursory survey of 
the various features of the government, and almost invariably state 
and local government suffer in the cutting process which is necessary. 
About seventy mstitutions only give courses in which state and local 
government are the basis of special study. In order that state and 
local government shall be given more consideration, and in order that 
judicial procedure and administrative methods shall receive more than 
passmg notice, it is absolutely necessary that the time allotted to 
American government be increased. Nothing short of a full year of 
at Jeast three hours a week gives the necessary time and opportunity to 
do anythmg like full justice to the national, state, and local units.i 

Because of the fact that only a small percentage of the 
student body elects this course under present conditions, 
and because the majority of those who do elect it never 
have an opportunity to continue the study of government, 
it is thought that the selection of American government 
for the beginning subject has the tendency to foster pro- 
vincialism. When but one course is taken this one, it is 
contended, should deal with foreign governments, to supply 
a broader basis for the comparison of political institu- 
tions. As the study of government is introduced in the 
grades and thorough and effective instruction is offered 
in the high school, it will become increasingly practicable 
to introduce the comparative method in introductory courses. 

One of the difficulties in the instruction in political sci- sequence 
ence which has received less consideration than it deserves °' ''''^^^^^ 
• is that of the sequence of courses. In the determination 
of sequence it is customary to have an introductory course, 
such as American government, European government, or 
political theory, and to make this subject a prerequisite for 
all advanced courses. As the introductory course requires 
sophomore standing, it renders entrance into advanced 
courses open only to students of junior rank or above. 

^ The Teaching of Government, pages 206-207. 



290 College Teacliing 

After passing the first course, there are open for election 
a number of subjects, mainly along specialized lines. This 
condition is to be found, particularly, in the large univer- 
sities, where a group of instructors offer specialized work, 
with either little or no advice to students as to the proper 
arrangement or sequence of courses. The ordinary classi- 
fication is into three groups: (1) an elementary course, 
prerequisite for advanced instruction; (2) courses for 
graduate and undergraduate students, seldom arranged on 
a basis of sequence or logical order; — the lack of sequence 
is due in part to the fact that after taking elementary 
work the student in government frequently wishes to 
specialize in the field of federal government, or of state 
government, or of international law, or possibly of political 
theory; (3) courses for graduate students, which are in- 
tended primarily for investigation and research. Students 
who specialize in government are generally advised by the 
head of the department or the professor under whom their 
work is directed, as to the proper arrangement and correla- 
tion of courses. It is, however, questionable whether some 
plan of sequence more definitely outlined than that now 
to be found in most catalogs ought not to be prepared 
in advance for the consideration of those who look for- 
ward to specializing in political science. Such an ar- 
rangement of sequence has been prepared by the depart- 
ment of political science of the University of Chicago, 
which divides its work into (1) elementary, (2) inter- 
mediate, (3) advanced — the advanced courses being sub- 
divided into (a) theory, ih) constitutional relations, (c). 
public administration, and id) law. Suggestions are 
offered as to the principal and secondary sequences for 
various groups of students. 

The sequence of courses could be better arranged pro- 
vided a freshman course were offered. A freshman course 
in American government could be given, with some atten- 
tion by way of comparison to European methods and 
practices, and followed by an intermediate course dealing 
with some select foreign governments, again using the com- 



The Teaching of Political Science 291 

parative method and viewpoint. Two courses of this 
character would offer a greater opportunity to give the in- 
struction now desired from the standpoint of the average 
student and citizen, and would serve as a better basis for 
advanced instruction than the single course now custom- 
arily offered either in American or comparative govern- 
ment. After taking the elementary courses the student 
could then be allowed to select from a group of subjects 
in one of the various lines, according to the special field 
in which he is interested. In short, the arrangement of 
the sequence of courses will necessarily be unsatisfactory 
as long as the elementary course is offered only to those 
of at least sophomore rank, a practice which unfortunately 
necessitates in many cases the beginning of the work in the 
junior or senior year. It will be necessary to introduce 
the subject earlier in the curriculum, in order to arrange 
such a sequence as would seem desirable from the stand- 
point of thorough and effective instruction. 

Methods of instruction ^ vary according to the size of ^e*iio<\s of 

■^ ^ o instruction 

the institution and the number in the classes. In the 
preliminary courses the system of informal lectures is com- 
bined with recitations, discussions, reports, and quizzes. 
The students in the advanced courses are obliged to carry 
on independent work under the supervision of the in- 
structor. For seniors and graduate students the seminar 
has been found most satisfactory in developing a keen in- 
terest in the problems of politics. Unfortunately, where 
the classes are small and the time is limited, it is custom- 
ary to rely largely on textbooks and recitations, with a 
moderate amount of special readings and occasional class 
reports. But, on the other hand, courses in government 
have been improved recently by the appearance of good 
textbooks. American and European governments are now 
presented in texts which have proved satisfactory and 
which have aided in the development of standard courses 
for these elementary subjects. Then, too, interest has 

1 The discussion of methods follows in part the Report of the Com- 
mittee on Instruction, pages 192-194, 



292 College Teaching 

been aroused and better results obtained through the use of 
texts and manuals dealing with the actual work and the 
problems of government. The neglected fields of state gov- 
ernment and administrative practices are just beginning to 
receive attention. 

One method of government instruction, and a very 
valuable one, is to encourage the examination of evidence 
and to consider different viewpoints on public questions, 
with the purpose of forming judgments based on the facts. 
For this purpose extensive reading and frequent reports 
are necessary to check up the work completed. It is pos- 
sible to keep in constant touch with the amount of work 
and the methods of study or investigation by means of dis- 
cussions in small sections for one or two hours each week 
and by the use of the problem sheet. 

In the courses offered in departments of government in 
such subjects as constitutional law, international law, com- 
mercial law, and to some extent in courses in juris- 
prudence and government regulation of public utilities 
and social Welfare, the case method has been adopted 
quite extensively. This method has been sufficiently 
tried and its effectiveness has been demonstrated in 
the teaching of law, so that nothing need be said 
in its defense. The introduction of the case method in 
political science and public law has undoubtedly im- 
proved the teaching of certain phases of these subjects. 
That the use of cases and extracts may be carried to an 
extreme which is detrimental is becoming apparent, for 
opinions and data change so rapidly that any collection 
of cases and materials is out of date before it issues from 
the press. Moreover, the use of such collections en- 
courages the reliance on secondary sources and secondary 
material, a tendency which ought to be discouraged. 
Every encouragement and advantage should be given to 
have students and investigators in government deal with 
original rather than secondary sources. 

There is, in addition to the use of textbooks, lectures, 
extensive reference reading, case books, and the writing 



The Teaching of Political Science 293 



of papers, a tendency to introduce the problem method of 
instruction and to encourage field work, observation, and, 
so far as practicable, a first-hand study of government func- 
tions and activities. 

Another line in which the study of government is under- 
going considerable modification is the emphasis placed on 
administration and administrative practices. While special 
attention heretofore has been given either to the history of 
politics and political institutions or to political theories and 
principles, the tendency is now to give import to political 
practices and the methods pursued in carrying on govern- 
ment divisions and departments. The introduction of 
courses in the principles of administration, with the con- 
sideration of problems in connection with public adminis- 
tration in national, state, and local affairs, is tending to 
modify the content as well as the methods of the teach- 
ing of government. New methods and a new content are 
changing the emphasis from the formal, theoretical, and 
historical study of government and turning attention to the 
practical phases and to the technique of administration. 
As a result of this change and through the work which is 
being undertaken by bureaus of reference and research, in- 
struction is brought much closer to public officers and 
greater service is rendered in a practical way to govern- 
ment administration. 

Among the difficulties and unsolved problems in the 
teaching of political science are, first, the beginning course; 
second, the relation of courses in government to economics, 
sociology, history, and law; third, the extent to which field 
investigation and the problem method can be used to ad- 
vantage in offering instruction and the development of 
new standards and of new tests which are applicable to 
these methods; fourth, the introduction of the scientific 
method. 

While the elementary course in government is now 
usually American government and is, as a rule, offered to 
sophomores, both the content and the present position of 
the course in the curriculum are matters on which there is 



Some un- 
solved prob- 
lems 



1. The intro- 
ductory 
course 



294 College Teaching 

considerable difference of opinion. Where the subject 
matter now offered to beginning students is comprised of 
comparative material selected from a number of modern 
governments, it is contended that this arrangement is prefer- 
able to confining attention to American institutions with 
which there is at least general but often vague familiar- 
ity. If provision is made in the high school, by which the 
majority of those who enter the university have had a 
good course in American government, there seems to be a 
strong presumption that the beginners' course should be de- 
voted to comparative government. It is quite probable 
that the introductory course will cease to be confined to a 
distinct and separate study of either foreign governments 
or of American government and that the most satisfactory 
course will be the development of one in which main 
emphasis is given to one or the other of these fields and 
in which constant and frequent comparisons will be made 
for purposes of emphasis, discussion, and the considera- 
tion of government issues and problems. In some cases it 
is undoubtedly true that emphasis should be given to 
foreign governments, and as the high schools improve their 
instruction in our local institutions, national and state, it 
will become increasingly necessary in colleges to turn at- 
tention to the study of foreign governments in the beginners' 
course. 

There appears to be a desire to introduce government 
into the freshman year, and it is likely that provision will 
be made to begin the study of the subject in the first college 
year, thereby rendering it possible for those who enter col- 
lege to profit by a year's work and to give an earlier start 
to those who wish to specialize. 

Another difficulty in connection with the introductory 
course which is still not clearly determined is the time 
and attention which may be given to lectures, to discus- 
sions, to the writing of papers or theses, to the investigation 
and report on problems, and the extent to which use may 
be made of some of the practical devices such as field 
investigation. There is a general belief that in the ele- 



The Teaching of Political Science 295 



mentary course only a slight use may be made of practical 
methods, but that it is necessary to begin these methods 
m the elementary years and to render instruction practical 
and concrete to a larger extent than is now done, by means 
of problems and the discussion of matters of direct interest 
to all citizens. No doubt as the problem method and field 
study are more definitely systematized and the ways of 
supervision and checking up the work developed, these de- 
vices will be used much more extensively. The preparation 
of problem sheets and of guides to the selection of con- 
crete material gives promise of a more general and ef- 
fective use of the problem method. 

The proper relationship and correlation of instruction in 2. Relation 
government with that of other subjects has not yet been JfoiTingov- 
determmed satisfactorily. The matter of correlation is ernmentto 
slowly being worked out along certain Tines; for example, JectT '''^" 
the relationship between courses in history and in gov- 
ernment is coming to be much better defined. Such sub- 
jects as constitutional history and the development of 
modern governments are being treated almost entirely in de- 
partments of history, and less attention is being given to 
the historical development of institutions in departments of 
political science. As long as it is impossible to make 
certain history courses prerequisites before beginning the 
study of government, it becomes necessary to give some at- 
tention in political science to the historical development of 
political institutions. By correlation and by proper ar- 
rangement of courses, however, the necessity of introduc- 
ing government courses with historical introductions ought 
to be considerably reduced. 

The relation between work in government and in 
economics and sociology is a more difficult problem and 
one which has not as yet been satisfactorily adjusted. 
Some of the courses given in departments of economics 
and sociology deal to a considerable extent with the regu- 
lation of public affairs. In these courses, including public 
finance, the regulation of public utilities, the regulation of 
trusts, labor organizations, and the administration and regu- 



296 College Teaching 

lation of social and industrial affairs, a more definite 
correlation between political science and so-called applied 
economics and applied sociology must be made. While it 
is undoubtedly necessary for the economist and the sociolo- 
gist to deal with government regulation of economic and 
social affairs, and while it is very desirable that these de- 
partments should emphasize the practical and applied 
phases of their subjects, it is nevertheless true that courses 
which are, to a large extent, comprised of government in- 
struction should be given under the direction of the depart- 
ment of political science, or, at least, in an arrangement 
of definite cooperation therewith. There is no reason why 
in such a subject as the regulation of public utilities a por- 
tion of the course might not be given in the department of 
economics and a portion in the department of government. 
Or it may be better, perhaps, for a course to be arranged 
in the regulation of public utilities, continuing through- 
out the year, in which the professors of economics, govern- 
ment, commerce, finance, and engineering participate in the 
presentation of various phases of the same subject. At all 
events, the present separation into different departments 
of the subject matter of government regulation of such 
affairs as public utilities, taxation, and social welfare regu- 
lation is, to say the least, not producing the best results. 

The relation of government courses to instruction in law 
is likewise a partially unsolved problem. A few years ago, 
when the curricula of law schools dealt with matters of law 
and procedure in which only the practitioner was interested, 
it became necessary to introduce the study of public law 
in departments of government and political science. Thus 
we find courses in international law, constitutional law, 
Roman law, and elements of law and jurisprudence being 
offered in large part in departments of political science. 
The recent changes in law school curricula, however, by 
which many of these subjects are now offered in the law 
school and in some cases are offered to qualified under- 
graduate students, render the situation somewhat more 
difficult to adjust. There is a tendency to introduce these 



The Teaching of Political Science 297 

courses into the law school for law students and to offer a 
similar course in the department of government for under- 
graduates and graduates. The problem has been further 
complicated by the provision in some of the leading law 
schools of a fourth year, in which the dominant courses 
relate to public and international law, legal history and 
foreign law, jurisprudence and legislative problems.^ As 
these courses become entirely legal in nature and content 
and require a background of three years of law, it becomes 
practically impossible for any but law students to be ad- 
mitted to them. With the prospect of a permanent ar- 
rangement for a fourth year of law devoted primarily to 
subjects formerly given in departments of political science, 
it seems to be necessary to provide instruction in constitu- 
tional law and international law, at least, for those ad- 
vanced students in political science who seek this instruc- 
tion but who do not expect to take the private law in- 
struction required to admit them to a fourth-year law class. 
The preferable arrangement may prove to be one in which 
a thorough course is offered which will be open to qualified 
seniors and graduate students and to law students, thus 
avoiding the duplication which is now characteristic of in- 
struction in law and the public law phases of government. 
In this matter, as in the relation of economics and sociology, 
the most appropriate and effective adjustment for coopera- 
tion remains to be formulated. 

As the criticism of eminent specialists in government and 3. ProiJiem 
politics has impressed upon instructors the idea that too Sstruction 
large a portion of the teaching of the subject is theoreti- 
cal, treating of what ought to be rather than of what 
actually occurs, dealing with facts only on a limited 
scale and with superficial attention to actual conditions, 
there has developed the necessity of revising the methods 
of instruction. This revision is being made largely in the 
introduction of field investigation, observation of govern- 

1 See especially article by Ernst Freund on " Correlation of Work for 
Higher Degrees in Graduate School and Law School," Vol. XI, Illi- 
nois Law Review, page 301. 



298 



College Teaching 



4. Introduc- 
tion of the 
scientific 
method 



ment activities, and the problem and research methods. 
The prevailing practice of the teaching of politics, which 
involves lectures, recitations, and the reading and writing 
of theses, with a considerable amount of supplementary 
work, is being revised by means of a research and refer- 
ence division, by the constant use of field investigation 
and by the study of governmental problems. The difficulty 
with all these devices lies in the indefinite and vague way in 
which so much of this work must be done. For the present, 
in only a few instances, such as the New York Bureau of 
Municipal Research, has the technique for field investiga- 
tion and the research method been effectively developed. 
One of the chief lines for the improvement of the teaching 
of government is in the standardization and systematiza- 
tion of the problem method and its more extensive use in 
the elementary and advanced government instruction. 

In the past and to a great extent at the present time 
that part of the study of government which has to do with 
political theory and with a descriptive and historical ac- 
count of government has comprised the greater portion of 
what is usually designated as political science. The na- 
ture of these studies is such as to render inapplicable 
the use of the scientific method. If the study of govern- 
ment is to be developed as a science in the true sense, 
then the above subjects must be supplemented by exhaustive 
inductive studies and research in the actual operation of 
government. Such methods are now being employed in 
the examination of government records and the comparison 
of administrative practices. And there is being developed 
also a science of government based on the practices and 
the technique of public administration. 

This science now finds its exemplification in some of the 
exceptional work of the graduate schools. Unfortunately, 
the connection between these schools and the government 
departments has not been such as to secure the best re- 
sults. Moreover, departments of political science are not 
now doing their part to place the results of scientific in- 
vestigations at the disposal of government officials. The 



The Teaching of Political Science 299 

introduction of courses in extension departments and even- 
ing classes has in part met this deficiency. But much re- 
mains to be done to render through the department of 
political science effective service in the practical operation 
of government. With the introduction of the problem 
method and field investigation in the elementary instruc- 
tion, so far as seems feasible, with the development of 
standard methods and the technique of research for ad- 
vanced instruction, the teaching of government will be 
rendered not only more valuable to the citizen, but colleges 
and universities may render aid to government officials and 
citizens interested in social and political affairs. 

A significant development as an aid for research and for 
rendering more effective public service has come in the 
establishment of bureaus of government research. The 
method of investigation and research which has been ap- 
plied to the problems of government by private organiza- 
tions has been found applicable to the handling of research 
material in the universities. Through a bureau of this 
character recent publications and ephemeral material may 
be collected for the use of advanced students, digests may 
be prepared on topics of special interest to legislators and 
administrators, and publications of particular interest to the 
citizens may be issued. Such a bureau serves as a gov- 
ernment laboratory for the university and can be placed 
at the service of public officials and others who desire to use 
a reference department in securing reliable data on govern- 
mental affairs. Thus it is coming to be realized that re- 
search in government may be encouraged and the resources 
of higher institutions may be so organized as to render a 
distinct and much appreciated public service. 

Charles Grove Haines 

University of Texas 



Bibliography 

Allix, E. H. Nezard, and Meunier, A. Instruction Civique. Paris, 
F. Juven, 1910; pages 238, 



300 College Teaching 

American Political Science Association. Report of the Committee on 
Instruction in Political Science in Colleges and Universities. 
Proceedings, 1913; pages 249-270. 

Report of Committee of Seven on Instruction in Colleges and 

Universities. Political Science Review, Vol. IX, pages 353-374. 

The Teaching of Government. Report to the American Political 

Science Association by the Committee on Instruction. The Mac- 
millan Company, 1916; pages 135-226. 

Baldwin, Simeon E. The Relations of Education to Citizenship. 
Yale University Press, 1912; pages 178. 

Beach, W. G. The College and Citizenship. Proceedings of the 
Washington Educational Association. School Journal Publishing 
Co., 1908 ; pages 55-57. 

Beard, C. A. The Study and Teaching of Politics. Columbia Uni- 
versity Press, June, 1912; Vol. XII, pages 268-274. 

Politics, Columbia University Press, 1912; pages 35. 

Training for Efficient Public Service. Annals of the American 

Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1916. 

Boitel, J., and Foiguet, R. Notions elementaires d" instruction civique 
de droit usuel et d'' economic politique. Paris, Delagrave, 1910; 
pages 307. 

Bourgueil, E. Instruction civique. Paris: F. Nathan, 1910; pages 
223. 

Bryce, James. The Hindrances to Good Citizenship. Yale Univer- 
sity Press, 1910; pages 138. 

Drown, Thomas M. Instruction in Municipal Government in Ameri- 
can Educational Institutions. National Municipal League: Pro- 
ceedings, Boston, 1902; pages 268-271. 

Fairlie, John A. Instruction in Municipal Government. National 
Municipal League: Proceedings, Detroit, 1903; pages 222-230. 

Freund, Ernst. Correlation of Work for Higher Degrees in Gradu- 
ate School and Law School. Illinois Law Review, Vol. XI, page 
301. 

Hall, G. Stanley. Civic Education. Educational Problems, New 
York, 1911, Vol. II, pages 667-682. 

Hill, David J. A Plan for a School of the Political Sciences. 1907, 
pages 34. 

Hinman, George W. The New Duty of American colleges. 63d 
Congress, 1st session. Senate Document No. 236, 1913. 

Lowell, A. Lawrence. Administrative Experts in Municipal Govern- 
ments. National Municipal Review, Vol. IV, pages 26-32. 

The Physiology of Politics, American Political Science Review, 

February, 1910. 

Public Opinion and Popular Government, Chapters 17-19. 

MoREY, William C. American Education and American Citizenship. 

Rochester, N. Y., pages 20. 



The Teaching of Political Science 301 

MuNRO, W. B. The Present Status of Instruction in Municipal Gov- 
ernment in the Universities and Colleges of the United States. 
National Municipal League: Proceedings. Pittsburgh, 1908, 
pages 348-366. 

Instruction in Municipal Government in the Universities and 

Colleges of the United States. National Municipal Review, Vol. 
II, pages 427-438, and Vol. V, pages 565-574. 

National Municipal League. Report of the Committee on Instruction 
in Municipal Government. Proceedings, Rochester, 1901; pages 
218-225. 

Report of the Committee on Organized Cooperation between the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Commonwealth of 
Massachusetts. Bulletin of the Alumni Association, 1914, No. 3. 

Report of the Committee on Training for Public Service. Columbia 
University. Charles A. Beard, Chairman. Bulletin, March 27, 
1915. 

Robinson, Frederick B. The Municipal Courses. City College (N. 
Y.) Quarterly, Vol. XII, page 18. 

Rowe, L. S. University and Collegiate Research in Municipal Gov- 
ernment. National Municipal League: Proceedings. Chicago, 
1904, pages 242-248. 

ScHAPER, W. A. What Do Students Know about American govern- 
ment before Taking College Courses in Political Science? Jour- 
nal of Pedagogy, June, 1906. Vol. XVIII, pages 265-288. 

Society for the Promotion of Training for the Public Service. E. A. 
Fitzpatrick, Director. Madison, Wisconsin. The Public Servant. 
Issued monthly. 

Universities and Public Service. Proceedings of the First Na- 
tional Conference. Madison, 1914, pages 289. 

Training for Public Service. New York Bureau of Municipal Re- 
search, Annual Reports. 

White, A. D. The Provision for Higher Instruction Bearing Directly 
upon Public Affairs. House Executive Document No. 42, part 2, 
46th Congress, 3d Session. 

Education in Political Science. Baltimore, pages 51. 

European Schools of History and Politics. Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity Studies, Series 5, Vol. XII. 

Wilson, Woodrow. The Study of Politics. An Old Master and 
Other Essays. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893, pages 31-57. 

Wolfe, A. B. Shall We Have an Introductory Course in Social Sci- 
ences? Journal of Political Economy, Vol. XXII, pages 253-267. 

Young, James T. University Instruction in Municipal Government. 
National Municipal League: Proceedings. Rochester, 1901; 
pages 226-234. 



XIV 
THE TEACHING OF PHILOSOPHY 



The unified 
college 
course in 
philosophy 



THE study of philosophy covers such a wide range of 
subjects that it is difficult to generalize in attempting 
to answer the basal questions which call for considera- 
tion in a book like this. In the great European universi- 
ties it includes psychology, logic, ethics, aesthetics, epistem- 
ology, metaphysics, the history of philosophy, and some- 
times even the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of 
history, the philosophy of law, and the philosophy of the 
State. Although special courses may not be offered in 
every one of these fields in our American colleges, their 
philosophical territory is sufficiently extensive and the 
separate provinces sufficiently unlike to baffle any one seek- 
ing to describe the educational aims and methods of the 
domain as a whole. In order, therefore, to do full justice 
to our task it would be necessary to treat each one of the 
various philosophical branches separately and to expand 
the space assigned to us into a fair-sized volume. Since 
this is not to be thought of, we shall have to confine our- 
selves to a consideration of the traits common to all the 
subjects, without forgetting, however, such differences as 
may call for different educational treatment. 

The difficulty of which we have spoken becomes less 
formidable when the teacher of the traditional philosophical 
subjects regards them not as so many independent and dis- 
connected fields of study, but as parts of a larger whole 
held together by some central idea. The great systematic 
thinkers, from Plato down to Herbert Spencer, have aimed 
at " completely unified knowledge " and have sought to 
bring order and coherence into what may seem to the cas- 
ual onlooker as a disunited array of phenomena. Philo- 
sophical teaching will be the more fruitful, the more it 
is inspired bv the thought of unity of aim, and the more 
consciously the teachers of the different disciplines keep 

302 



The Teachifig of Philosophy 303 



this idea in riiind. That is the reason why philosophical 
instruction given in a small college and by one man is, 
in some respects, often more satisfactory than in the large 
university with its numberless specialists, in which the 
beginning student frequently does not see the forest for the 
trees. It is not essential that the teacher present a 
thoroughly worked-out and definitive system of thought, but 
it is important that he constantly keep in mind the inter- 
relatedness of the various parts of his subject and the 
notion of unity which binds them together, — at least as an 
ideal. 

And perhaps this notion of the unity of knowledge ought 
to be made one of the chief aims of philosophical instruc- 
tion in the college. The ideal of philosophy in the sense 
of metaphysics is to see things whole, to understand the 
interrelations not only of the branches taught in the de- 
partment of philosophy but of all the diverse subjects 
studied throughout the university. The student obtains 
glimpses of various pictures presented by different de- 
partments and different men, and from different points of 
view. Each teacher offers him fragments of knowledge, 
the meaning of which, as parts of an all-inclusive system, 
the pupil does not comprehend. Indeed, it frequently hap- 
pens that the different pieces do not fit into one another; and 
he is mystified and bewildered by the seemingly disparate 
array of facts and theories crowding his brain which he 
cannot correlate and generally does not even suspect of 
being capable of correlation. To be sure, every teacher 
ought to be philosophical, if not a philosopher, and in- 
dicate the place of his specialty in the universe of knowl- 
edge; but that is an ideal which has not yet been realized. 
In the meanwhile, the study of philosophy ought to make 
plain that knowledge is not a mere heap of broken frag- 
ments, that the inorganic, organic, and mental realms are 
not detached and independent principalities but kingdoms 
in a larger empire, and that the world in which we live 
is not a chaos but a cosmos. An introductory course in 
philosophy, the type of course given in many German uni- 



304 



College Teaching 



Controlling 
aims in the 
teaching of 
philosophy 



versities under the title " Einleitung in die Philosophic " 
and attended by students from all sections of the university, 
will help the young student to find his bearings in the 
multifarious thought-world unfolded before him and will, 
at the same time, put him in the way of developing some 
sort of world-view later on. 

Philosophical instruction that succeeds in the task out- 
lined above will have accomplished much. Nevertheless, it 
cannot attain its goal unless the student is introduced to the 
study of the human-mental world which constitutes a large 
portion of the field assigned to the philosophical depart- 
ment: the study of psychology, logic, ethics, and the history 
of philosophy. These branches deal with things in which 
the human race has been interested from its early civi- 
lized beginnings and with which the young persons entering 
college have had little or no opportunity of becoming 
acquainted. And they deal with a world which no man can 
ignore who seeks to understand himself and his relation 
to the natural and social environment in which his lot is 
cast. A knowledge of the processes of mind (psychology), 
of the laws of thought (logic), of the principles of con- 
duct (ethics), and of the development of man's interpreta- 
tion of reality (history of philosophy) will supplement 
the knowledge acquired by the study of physical nature, 
preventing a one-sided and narrow world-view, and will 
serve as a preparation for intelligent reflection upon the 
meaning of reality (philosophy in the sense of meta- 
physics). 

All these subjects, therefore, have as one of their aims 
the training of the powers of thought (judgment and rea- 
soning) ; and philosophical teaching should never lose sight 
of this. Thinking is a difficult business, — an art which is 
practiced, to be sure, in every field of study, but one for 
which the philosophical branches provide unusual oppor- 
tunity and material. It has become a habit with many 
of recent years to decry the study of logic as an antiquated 
discipline, but it still remains, if properly taught, an excel- 
lent means of cultivating clear thinking; there is no reason 



The Teaching of Philosophy 305 

why a consciousness of correct ways of thinking and of the 
methods employed in reaching reliable judgments should 
not prove useful to every one. 

We should say, therefore, that the study of philosophy 
has a high cultural value: it encourages the student to re- 
flect upon himself and his human and natural surroundings 
(society and nature) and to come to grips with reality; it 
frees him from the incubus of transmitted opinions and bor- 
rowed beliefs, and makes him earn his spiritual possessions 
in the sweat of his face, — mindful of Goethe's warning that 
" he alone deserves freedom and life who is compelled to 
battle for them day by day "; — it helps him to see things 
in their right relations, to acquire the proper intellectual 
and volitional attitude toward his world through an under- 
standing of its meaning and an appreciation of its values; 
in short, it strengthens him in his struggle to win his soul, 
to become a person. This is its ideal; and in seeking to 
realize it, philosophy cooperates with the other studies in 
the task of developing human beings, in preparing men for 
complete living, and is therefore practical in a noble sense 
of the term. It has a high disciplinary value in that it 
trains the powers of analysis and judgment, at least in the 
fields in which it operates. And the habit acquired there 
of examining judgments, hypotheses, and beliefs critically 
and impartially, of testing them in the light of experience 
and of reason, cannot fail to prove helpful wherever clear 
thinking is a requisite. 

The teacher should keep all these aims in view in organiz- 
ing his material and applying his methods. He should 
not forget that philosophy is above all things a reflection 
upon life; he should endeavor to train his pupils in the art 
of interpreting human experience, of grasping its meaning. 
His chief concern should be to make thinkers of them, not 
to fasten upon them a final philosophic creed, — not to 
give them a philosophy, but to teach them how to phi- 
losophize. If he succeeds in arousing in them a keen in- 
tellectual interest and a love of truth, and in developing 
in them the will and the power to think a problem through 



306 College Teaching 

to the bitter end, he will have done more for them than 
would have been possible by furnishing them with ready- 
made formulas. There is nothing so hopelessly dead as a 
young man without the spirit of intellectual adventure, with 
his mind made up, with the master's ideas so deeply driven 
into his head that his intellectual career is finished. The 
Germans call such a person vernagelt, a term that fitly de- 
scribes the case. What should be aimed at is the cultivation 
of the mind so that it will broaden with enlarging experi- 
ence, that it will be hospitable to new ideas and yet not be 
overwhelmed by them, that it will preserve inviolate its in- 
tellectual integrity and keep fresh the spirit of inquiry. 
Such a mind may be safely left to work out its own salvation 
in the quest for a Weltanschauung. 

" Young, all lay in dispute ; I shall know, being old." 

In emphasizing the need of such central aims in in- 
struction we do not wish to be understood as not appreciat- 
ing the utilitarian value of the philosophical branches and 
their importance as a preparation for professional activity. 
Like all knowledge, these subjects have their worth not 
merely as means of developing human personality but also 
as means of equipping the student with such knowledge of 
facts, methods, and theories as will prove useful to him 
in his other studies and in the daily affairs of life. The 
teacher, the physician, the lawyer, the clergyman, the artist, 
the engineer, the business man, will be benefited by an 
understanding of the workings of the human mind, of the 
laws of human thinking, and of the principles of human 
conduct. It is not absolutely necessary, however, in our 
opinion, that separate classes specially designed for the dif- 
ferent professions be formed in the colleges; after all, it 
is the same human mind that operates in all the fields of 
human activity, and a knowledge of mental life in gen- 
eral will serve the purposes of every vocation. Doubtless, 
courses in psychology, logic, and ethics, for example, might 
be offered having in view the particular needs of prospective 



The Teaching of Philosophy 307 



members of the various callings, but such courses would, in 
order to meet the situation, presuppose an acquaintance with 
the respective professional fields in question which only 
students well along in their professional studies could be 
expected to possess. Courses of this character might profit- 
ably be given for the benefit of professional students who 
have already taken the introductory subjects necessary to 
their proper understanding. 

It is not easy to determine the most favorable period 
in a student's college career at which philosophical sub- 
jects should be taught. The more mature the student is, 
the more successful the instruction is apt to be; but this 
may be said of many other studies. There is no reason 
why an intelligent freshman may not begin the study of 
psychology and logic and perhaps of some* other intro- 
ductory philosophical branches; but as a rule better re- 
sults may be obtained by admitting only such persons to 
these classes as have familiarized themselves with univer- 
sity methods. 

We should recommend that every student in the college 
devote at least three hours a week for four terms to the 
study of psychology, logic, ethics, and the history of 
philosophy. In case not all these fundamental courses 
can be taken, the student will most likely derive the greatest 
benefit by giving a year to the study of the history of 
philosophy, or one term to the introduction to philosophy, 
where he has only that much time at his disposal. It seems 
easier, however, to arouse a philosophical interest in the 
average student through a study of the basal philosophical 
questions from the standpoint of contemporaneous thinking 
than through the study of the history of philosophy. He 
is generally lacking in the historic sense, and is apt to be 
wearied and even confused by the endless procession of 
systems. This is particularly the case when the teacher 
fails to emphasize sufficiently the progressive nature of 
philosophical thinking in its history, when he regards this 
as a mere succession of ideas rather than as a more or 
less logical unfolding of problems and solutions — as a 



Introduction 
of philoso- 
phy in the 
college 
course 



Problems 
of philoso- 
phy and the 
development 
of thought 
to be empha- 
sized, rather 
than the 
historical 
sequence 



instruction 



308 College Teaching 

continuous effort on the part of the universal mind, so to 
speak, to understand itself and the world. A course in the 
introduction to philosophy acquainting the student with the 
aims of philosophy and its relation to other fields of study, 
and placing before him an account of the most important 
problems of metaphysics and epistemology as well as of 
the solutions which have been offered by the great thinkers, 
together with such criticisms and suggestions as may stimu- 
late his thought, will awaken in him a proper appreciation 
of a deeper study of the great systems and lead him to seek 
light from the history of philosophy. 
Methods of The place and relative worth of the various methods of 

instruction in the province of philosophy will, of course, 
depend, among other things, upon the character of the par- 
ticular subject taught and the size and quality of the class. 
In nearly all the introductory philosophical branches in 
which the classes are large the lecture method will prove 
a valuable auxiliary. In no case, however, should this 
method be employed exclusively; and in formal logic it 
should be used rather sparingly. Ample opportunity 
should always be given in smaller groups for raising ques- 
tions and discussing important issues with a view to clear- 
ing up obscure points, overcoming difficulties, developing 
the student's powers of thought, and enabling him to exer- 
cise his powers of expression. It is also essential that the 
student be trained in the difficult art of reading philosophi- 
cal works. It is wise as a rule to refer him to a good text- 
book, which should be carefully studied, to passages or 
chapters in other standard manuals, and in historical study 
to the writings of the great masters. And frequent oppor- 
tunity to express himself in the written word must be af- 
forded him; to this end written reports giving the thought 
of an author in the student's own language, occasional 
critical essays, and written examination^ appealing not only 
to his memory but to his intelligence should be required 
during the term. Such exercises keep the student's interest 
alive, increase his stock of knowledge, develop maturity 
and independence of thought, and create a sense of grow- 



The Teaching of Philosophy 309 



ing intellectual power. The written tests encourage mem- 
bers of the class to review the work gone over and to dis- 
cuss with one another important phases of it; in the effort 
to organize their knowledge they obtain a much better grasp 
of the subject than would have been possible without such 
an intensive re-appraisal of the material. 

In the course on formal logic a large part of the time 
should be spent in examining and criticizing examples of 
the processes of thought studied (definitions, arguments, 
methods employed in reaching knowledge) and in apply- 
ing the principles of correct thinking in written discourses. 
It is a pity that we have no comprehensive work containing 
the illustrative material needed for the purpose. As it is, 
the teacher will do well to select his examples from scien- 
tific works, speeches, and the textbooks used in other classes. 
As every one knows, nothing is so likely to deaden the in- 
terest and to make the study of logic seem trivial as the use 
of the puerile examples found in many of the older treat- 
ises. With the proper material this subject can be made 
one of the most interesting and profitable courses in the 
curriculum, — in spite of what its modern detractors may 
say. 

In the history of philosophy the lectures and textbook 
should be supplemented by the reading of the writings of 
the great philosophers. Wherever it is possible, the learner 
should be sent to the sources themselves. It will do him 
good to finger the books and to find the references ; and by 
and by he may be tempted to read beyond the required as- 
signment — a thing greatly to be encouraged, and out of 
the question so long as he limits himself to some one's selec- 
tions from the writings of the philosophers. 

In the advanced courses the research method may be in- 
troduced; special problems may be assigned to the student 
who has acquired a knowledge of the fundamentals, to be 
worked out under the guidance of the instructor. 

In the lecture intended for beginners the teacher should 
seek to arouse in his hearers an interest in the subject and 
the desire to plunge more deeply into it. He should not 



Logic to b^ 
related to 
the intellec- 
tual life 
of the 
student 



Students to 
be familiar- 
ized with 
sources and 
original 
writings of 
the leading 
philoso- 
phers 



310 



College Teaching 



Lecture 
method 
should 
arouse 
dynamic in- 
terest and a 
desire to 
master the 
problems of 
philosophy 



How to se- 
cure active 
participation 
by students 
through 
lecture 
method 



bewilder the student with too many details and digressions 
but present the broad outlines of the field, placing be- 
fore him the essentials and leaving him to fill in the 
minutiae by a study of the books of reference. Each lecture 
ought to constitute an organic whole, as it were, in which 
the different parts are held together by a central idea; and 
its connection with the subject matter of the preceding 
lectures should be kept before the hearer's mind. All this 
requires careful and conscientious preparation on the part 
of the teacher, who must understand the intellectual quality 
of his class and avoid " shooting over their heads " as well 
as going to the other extreme of aiming below the level of 
their mental capacities. Lecturing that is more than mere 
entertainment is an art which young instructors sometimes 
look upon as an easy acquisition and which older heads, 
after long years of experience, often despair of ever master- 
ing. The lecture aims to do what books seldom accom- 
plish — to infuse life and spirit into the subject; and this 
ideal a living personality may hope to realize where a 
dead book fails. 

In order, however, that the philosophical lecture may not 
fail of its purpose, the hearer must be more than a mere 
listener; he must bring with him an alert mind that grasps 
meanings and can follow thought-sequences. And he can- 
not keep his attention fixed upon the discourse and under- 
stand the relations of its parts unless other senses co- 
operate with the sense of hearing and unless the motor 
centers are called into play also. He should carefully 
cultivate the art of taking notes, an accomplishment in 
which the average student is sadly lacking and to acquire 
which he needs the assistance of the instructor, which he 
seldom receives. An examination of the student's notebook 
frequently reveals such a woeful lack of discrimination on 
the writer's part that one is led to doubt the wisdom of fol- 
lowing this method at all; wholly unimportant things are 
set down in faithful detail and essential ones wholly ignored. 
The hour spent in the lecture room, however, can and 
should be made a fruitful means of instruction, one that 



The Teaching of Philosophy 311 



will awaken processes of thought and leave its mark. But 
in order to get the best result, the student should be urged 
to study his notes and the books to which he has been 
referred while the matters discussed in the lecture are still 
fresh in his mind; he will be able to clear up points he 
did not fully grasp, see connections that have escaped 
him, understand the force of arguments which he missed; 
and he will assume a more independent and critical attitude 
toward what he has heard than was possible on the spur 
of the moment, when he was driven on and could not stop 
and reflect. At home, in the quiet of his study, he can 
organize the material, see the parts of the discourse in their 
relations to each other, and re-create the whole as it lived 
and moved in the mind of the teacher. In doing this work 
he is called on to exercise his thinking and takes an im- 
portant step forward. It is for this reason that I am some- 
what skeptical of the value of the syllabus prepared by the 
teacher for the use of classes in philosophy, — it does for 
the student what he should do for himself. Whatever value 
the syllabus may have in other fields of study, its use in the 
philosophical branches ought to be discouraged. The great 
weakness of the lecture method lies in its tendency to relieve 
the hearer of the necessity of doing his own thinking, to 
leave him passive, to feed him with predigested food; and 
this defect is augmented by providing him with "helps" 
which rob him of the benefit and pleasure of putting the 
pieces of the puzzle-picture together himself. 

However, even at its best, the lecture method, unless sup- 
plemented in the ways already indicated, runs the danger 
of making the student an intellectual sponge, a mere 
absorber of knowledge, or a kind of receptacle for pro- 
fessors to shoot ideas into. As was said before, the student 
must cultivate the art of reading books and of expressing 
his thoughts by means of the spoken and written word. 
At the early stages and in some fields of philosophical 
study, however, the reading of many books may confuse 
the beginner and leave his mind in a state of bewilderment. 
It is indispensable that he acquire the working concepts and 



312 



College Teaching 



Organiza- 
tion of 
under- 
graduate 
courses in 
philosophy 



the terminology of the subject, and to this end it is gener- 
ally wise to limit his reading until he has gained sufficient 
skill in handling his tools, as it were. In the elementary 
courses many members of the class will be unable to do 
more than follow the lectures and study the textbook; the 
more gifted ones, however, should be encouraged to extend 
the range of their reading under the guidance of the in- 
structor. 

An answer to the question concerning the desired se- 
quence of courses in philosophy will depend upon many 
considerations, — upon one's conception of philosophy and 
of the various subjects generally embraced under it, upon 
one's notion of the aims of philosophical instruction, upon 
one's estimate of the difficulties encountered by the student 
in the study of the different branches of it, and so on. 
There is wide divergence of opinion among thinkers on all 
these points. Philosophy is variously conceived as meta- 
physics, as theory of knowledge, as the science of mind 
(Geisteswissenschaft), as the science of values iWert- 
theorie), or as all of these together. Logic is conceived 
by some thinkers as dependent upon psychology, by others 
as the presupposition of all the sciences, including 
psychology. Ethics is regarded both as a branch of 
psychology, or as dependent upon psychology, and as an in- 
dependent study having nothing whatever to do with 
psychology. Psychology itself is treated both as a natural 
science, its connection wdth philosophy being explained as 
a historical survival, and as the fundamental study upon 
which all the other subjects of the philosophical depart- 
ment must rest. Where there is such a lack of agreement, 
it will not be easy to map out a sequential course of study 
that will satisfy everybody. Even when philosophy is de- 
fined in the old historic sense as an attempt to reach a 
theory of the world and of life, men may differ as to the 
exact order in which the basal studies should be pursued. 
By many the history of philosophy is considered the best 
introduction to the entire field, while others would place 
it at the end of the series of fundamentals (psychology, 



The Teaching of Philosophy 313 



logic, ethics), holding that a student who has studied these 
will be best equipped for a study that includes the history 
of their development. As a matter of fact, given students 
of mature mind and the necessary general preparation, 
either order may be justified. The average underclassman 
is, however, too immature to plunge at once into the study 
of the history of philosophy, and the present writer would 
recommend that it be preceded by courses in general 
psychology, logic and ethics. The average sophomore will 
have little difficulty in following courses in psychology and 
logic; and it is immaterial which of these he takes up first. 
The course in the theory of ethics should come in the junior 
or senior year and after the student has gained some 
knowledge of psychology (preferably from a book like 
Stout's Manual of Psychology) . And it would be an ad- 
vantage if the course in ethics could be preceded by a study 
of the development of moral ideas, of the kind, let us 
say, presented in Hobhouse's Morals in Evolution. For 
reasons already stated, the entire course in philosophy 
should be inaugurated by the Introduction to Philosophy. 
Advanced courses in metaphysics and the theory of knowl- 
edge should come at the end and follow the history of 
philosophy. The ideal sequence would, therefore, be in the 
view of the present writer: Introduction to Philosophy, 
Psychology or Logic, the Development of Moral Ideas, The- 
ory of Ethics, History of Philosophy, Metaphysics, and 
Theory of Knowledge. It must be admitted, however, that 
a rigorous insistence upon this scheme in the American col- 
lege, in which freedom of election is the rule, would impair 
the usefulness of the department of philosophy. Few stu- 
dents will be willing to take all these subjects, and there is 
no reason why an intelligent junior or senior should not be 
admitted to a course in ethics or the history of philosophy 
without having first studied the other branches. A person 
possessing sufficient maturity of mind to pursue these studies 
will be greatly benefited by them even when he comes to 
them without previous preparation; and it would be a pity 
to deprive him of the opportunity to become acquainted with 



314 



College Teaching 



Moot ques- 
tions: con- 
troversy 
between 
philosopher 
and psy- 
chologist 



a field in which some of the ablest thinkers have exercised 
their powers. At all events, he should not leave college 
without having had a course in the history of philosophy, 
which will open up a new world to him and may perhaps 
stimulate him to read the best books in the other branches 
later on. 

It would not be possible, of course, to prescribe all the 
fundamental philosophical courses, even if it were desir- 
able, — few faculties would go so far, — but it would be 
wise to require every candidate for the bachelor's degree 
to give at least six hours of his time (three hours a term, 
on the two-term basis) to one or two of the elementary 
courses, preferably in the sophomore year. Ethics and the 
history of philosophy could then be chosen as electives 
and be followed by the more advanced and specialized 
courses. 

We have already touched upon some of the debatable 
questions in the sphere of philosophical education. The 
dispute concerning the place of psychology in the scheme 
of philosophical instruction has its cause in differences of 
view concerning the aims, nature, and methods of that sub- 
ject. Philosophers ask for an introductory course in psy- 
chology which shall serve as a propaedeutic to the philo- 
sophical studies, while teachers of education wish to have it 
treated in a way to throw light upon educational methods 
and theory. " Some biologists treat mental phenomena as 
mere correlates of physiological processes. . . . Others, 
including a number of psychologists also, regard psycho- 
logical phenomena as fully explicable in terms of behavior, 
and as constituting therefore a phase of biological science." 
The Committee of the American Psychological Association 
on the Academic Status of Psychology recommends " that 
the Association adopt the principle that the undergraduate 
psychological curriculum in every college or university, 
great or small, should be planned from the standpoint of 
psychology and in accordance with psychological ideals, 
rather than to fit the needs and meet the demands of some 



The Teaching of Philosophy 315 

other branch of learning." ^ This declaration of principle 
might lead to peace between the philosophers and the 
psychologists if there were agreement concerning the 
" psychological ideals " in accordance with which the sub- 
ject is to be studied. The desideratum of the philosophers 
is a psychology which will give the student an understand- 
ing of the various phases of mental life; but they do not 
believe that this can be reached by an exclusive use of the 
natural-scientific method. The objection of some psy- 
chologists, that the philosophers wish to inject metaphysics 
into the study of mental processes, is met by the rejoinder 
that the natural-scientific psychology is itself based upon an 
unconscious metaphysics, and a false one at that. What 
the philosophers desire is psychological courses which will 
do full justice to the facts of the mental life and not falsify 
them to meet the demands of a scientific theory or method 
— courses of the kind given in European universities by 
men whose reputation as psychologists is beyond suspicion. 

We have likewise alluded, in this chapter, to the con- ^^s^^Tto 
troversy over the need and nature of an introductory course nature of 
in philosophy. Of those who favor such a philosophical '^urse^in^'^ 
propaedeutic some recommend the History of Philosophy, philosophy 
others an Introduction to Philosophy of the type described 
in the preceding pages. Some teachers regard as the ideal 
course a study of the evolving attitudes of the individual 
toward the world, after the manner of Hegel's Phenomenol- 
ogy of the Spirit; some the Philosophy of History; some 
Kulturgeschichtef that is, the study of " the evolution of 
science, morality, art, religion, and political life, — in short, 
the history of institutions"; some the study of the great 
literatures; and some would seek the approach to the sub- 
ject through the religious interest.^ It is plain that the 
History of Philosophy will receive help from all these 
sources; and a wise teacher will make frequent use of 
them. Nor can the course in the Introduction to Philoso- 

1 The sentences quoted are taken from the Report of this committee, 
which was published in December, 1914. 

2 See the articles of J. W. Hudson and others in the Bibliography. 



316 



College Teaching 



The ' ' case 
method ' ' 
in the 
teaching of 
philosophy 



phy afford to ignore them; it will do well to lay particular 
stress upon the philosophical attitudes, the embryonic 
philosophies which are to be found in the great literatures, 
in the great religions, in science, and in the common sense 
of mankind. Wherever the human mind is at work, there 
philosophical conceptions, — world-views, crude or devel- 
oped, — play their part; and they form the background 
of the lives of peoples as well as of individuals. In the 
systems of the great thinkers they are formulated and made 
more or less consistent; but everywhere they are the result 
of the mind's yearning to understand the meaning of life 
in its manifold expressions. When the student comes to 
see that philosophy is simply an attempt to do what man- 
kind has always been doing and will always continue to do, 
in a rough way, that it is " only an unusually obstinate at- 
tempt to think clearly and consistently," — to continue the 
process of thinking to the bitter end, — his attitude toward 
it will be one of intelligent interest and respect. But not 
one of these subjects taken by itself will serve the purpose 
of an introductory course. 

Another moot question is concerned with the use of the 
" case method," employed in law instruction, in ethics. 
The case method seeks to know what the moral law is by 
studying the moral judgments of society; or, more 
definitely, to quote the words of Professor Coxe,^ one of 
its champions: "to discover, if possible, a law running 
through the judgments which society has made through its 
duly appointed officials." " Historical cases, properly at- 
tested, alone give us the means of objective judgment." 
There can be no doubt that this method will prove service- 
able, if judiciously applied; but its exclusive use either as 
a method of study or as a method of instruction, — even 
in an introductory course in ethics, — is not to be recom- 
mended.^ The student v/ill not gain an adequate concep- 
tion of morality from a study of the varying and often con- 
tradictory " historical cases," much less from a study of the 

^ See Bibliography. 

2 See Professor Overstreet's Discussion mentioned in the Bibliography. 



The Teaching of Philosophy 317 



judgments which society has made "through its duly ap- " 
pointed officials." The legal "case" literature of our 
country does indeed furnish valuable and interesting ma- 
terial for ethical study, but it would require a riper mind 
than that of a beginner to discover and to evaluate the 
moral principles which lie embodied in it. 

The problem of testing the effectiveness of one's teach- Testing the 
ing presents few difficulties in classes which are small and Suction 
in which individual instruction is possible. Wherever 
teacher and student come in close personal contact and op- 
portunity is afforded for full and frequent discussions as 
well as for written exercises, it is a comparatively easy 
matter to judge the mental caliber of the members of the 
class and to determine the extent of their progress. In 
the case of the large classes, however, which crowd into 
the lecture halls of the modern university, the task is not 
so simple. Here every effort should be made to divide 
such concourses of students into numerous sections, small 
enough to enable the instructor to become acquainted with 
those under his charge and to watch their development. 
The professor who gives the lectures should take one or 
more of these sections himself in order that he may under- 
stand the minds to which he is addressing himself, and 
govern himself accordingly. The tests should consist of 
discussions, essays, and written and oral examinations; by 
means of these it is not impossible to determine whether the 
aims of the subject have been realized in the instruction 
or not. But the tasks set should be of such a character as 
to test the student's power of thought, his ability to under- 
stand what he has read and heard with all its implications, 
his ability to assume a critical attitude toward what he 
has assimilated, and his ability to try his intellectual wings 
in independent flights. A person who devotes himself faith- 
fully to his work during the entire term, who puts his mind 
upon it, takes an active part in the discussions, and is en- 
couraged to express himself frequently by means of the 
written word, will surely give some indication of the 
progress he has made, even in a written examination — it 



318 College Teaching 

being a fair assumption that one who knows will somehow 
succeed in revealing his knowledge. Care must be taken, 
of course, that the test is not a mere appeal to the memory; 
it is only when the examination makes demands upon the 
student's intelligence that it can be considered a fair meas- 
ure of the value of philosophical instruction. It must not 
be forgotten, however, that the examination may reveal not 
only the weakness of the learner but the weakness of the 
teacher. It is possible for a student, even in philosophy, to 
make a fine showing in a written examination by repeating 
the words of the master which he does not understand, with- 
out having derived any real benefit from the course. The 
teacher may set an examination whi h will hide the de- 
ficiencies of the instruction, and the temptation to do this 
in large classes which he knows have not been properly 
taught is great. 

Frank Thilly 

Cornell JJniveTsity 

Bibliography 

CoxE, G. C. The Case Method in the Study and Teaching of Ethics. 

Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, Vol. 

X, 13, page 337. 
Davies, a. E. Education and Philosophy. Journal of Philosophy, 

Psychology, and Scientific Methods, Vol. VI, 14, page 365. 
HiNMAN, E, L. The Aims of an Introductory Course in Philosophy. 

Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, Vol. 

VII, 21, page 561. 
HoFLER, A. Zur Propddeutik-Frage. 
HoFLER, A. Zur Reform der philosophischen Propadeutik. Zeit- 

schrift fiir die Osterreichischen Gymnasien, Vol. L, 3, page 255. 
Hudson, J, W. Hegel's Conception of an Introduction to Philosophy. 

Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, Vol. 

VI, 13, page 337. 

An Introduction to Philosophy through the Philosophy of His- 
tory. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, 
Vol. VII, 21, page 569. 

The Aims and Methods of Introduction Courses: A Question- 
naire. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Meth- 
ods, Vol. IX, 2, page 29. 

Lehmann, R. Der deutsche Unterricht, pages 389-437. 



The Teaching of Philosophy 319 

Leuchtenberger, G. Die philosophische Propddeutik auf den hoh- 

eren Schulen. 
OvERSTREET, H. A. Professor Coxe's " Case Method " in Ethics. 

Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, Vol. 

X, 17, page 464. 
Paulsen, F. German Universities and University Studies. English 

translation by Frank Thilly and W. W. Elwang, Book III and 

Book IV. 
Ueber Vergangenheit und Zukunft der Philosophic im gelehrten 

Unterricht, Central-Organ fiir die Inter essen des Realschulwesens, 

Vol. XIV, 1, page 4. 
Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, Conclusion. 



Report of the Committee on the Academic Status of Psychology, pub- 
lished by the American Psychological Association, December, 
1914. 

Tufts, J. H. Carman as a Teacher. Journal of Philosophy, Psychol- 
ogy, and Scientific Methods, Vol. IV, 10, page 263. 

Weissenfels, O. Die Philosophic auf dem Gymnasium. Zeitschrift 
fiir das Gymnasialwesen, Vol. LIII, 1, page 1. 

Wendt, G. Didaktik und Methodik des deutschen Unterrichts, Hand- 
buch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen. 



XV 
THE TEACHING OF ETHICS 



Interest in 
the study of 
ethics deter- 
mined hy 
the aim of 
instruction 



Viewpoint 
in the 
past 



The busi- 
ness of right 
living the 
aim of ethics 
teaching 



NOWHERE does academic tediousness work a more dire 
mischief than in the teaching of ethics. It is bad to 
have students forever shun the best books because of poor 
instruction in literature; the damage is worse when it is 
the subject of moral obligation which they associate with 
only the duller hours of their college life. Not that the 
aim of a course in ethics is to afford a number of enter- 
taining periods. The object rather is to help our students 
realize that here is a subject which seeks to interpret for 
them the most important problems of their own lives present 
and to come. Where this end is kept in view, the question 
of interesting them is settled. A sincere interpretation of 
life always takes the interest when once it is grasped that 
this is what is really being interpreted. 

The procedure in the past (and still quite common) was 
to introduce the subject by way of its history. A book 
like Sidgwick's History of Ethics was studied, with supple- 
ments in the shape of the students' own reading of the 
classics, or lectures, with quotations, by the teacher. That 
this method was frequently of much service is undeniable. 
Teachers there are with rare gifts of inspiration who can 
put freshness into any course which ordinary teachers leave 
hopelessly arid. But this should not blind us to the fact 
that certain modes of procedure are in general more likely 
to be fruitful than others. 

These methods depend upon the aim; and the aim, we 
venture to hold, should be eminently practical. The con- 
tent of ethics is not primarily a matter of whether Kant's 
judgments are sounder than Mill's or Spencer's. Its sub- 
ject is human life and the business of right living: how 
should people — real people, that is, not textbook illustra- 
tions — live with one another? This is the essential con- 
cern of our subject matter, and in it our student is inti- 

320 



The Teaching of Ethics 321 

mately and practically involved. Charged with the fact, he 
may deny the impeachment. He refuses to worry over the 
merits of hedonism versus rigorism, the distinction between 
hypothetical and categorical imperatives, or the claim of 
ethics to be called a science. Ethics, that is, as an in- 
tellectual discipline through the survey of historic disputa- 
tions is indeed remote from the concerns that touch his life. 
But all the time there is no subject of greater interest when 
approached from the side of its bearing on practical prob- 
lems. Consider the earnestness with which the student will 
discuss with his friends such questions as these: What 
sense is there in a labor strike? Is a conscientious objector 
justified in refusing military service? Why should any one 
oppose easy divorce laws? May a lawyer defend a rogue 
whom he knows to be guilty? Can one change the nature 
with which he was born? Is violence justified in the name 
of social reform? If what is right in one age or place is 
wrong in another, is it fair to object when moral laws are 
broken? If a practice like prostitution is common, what 
makes it wrong? 

These do not sound like the questions likely to re- 
ceive a welcome hearing in the classroom; but it is pre- 
cisely upon the interest in such topics as these that 
the course in ethics should build; for its subject is right 
living, a matter in which the student may indeed be 
assumed to feel a genuine concern. If the questions 
that he wants answered are not all as broad in their 
significance as the foregoing, there are others of a more 
immediate personal kind which arise in his life as a 
student, as a friend, as a son and brother, problems 
in which standards of fair play and " decency " are 
involved, and upon which it may be taken for granted 
that he has done some thinking, howsoever crude. 
These interests are invaluable. Out of them the finer 
product is to be created in the shape of better stand- 
ards, higher ideals, and habits of moral thoughtful- 
ness, leading in turn to still better standards and still 
worthier conduct. The course in ethics should be practical 



322 



College Teaching 



Illustrations 
of the prob- 
lems of right 
living 



in the sense that both its starting point and its final object 
are found in the student's management of his life. 

Consider, for example, how his interest in problems of 
friendship may be used as the point of departure for an 
extremely important survey over general questions of right 
relationship. Just because friendship is so vital a concern 
of adolescent years, he can be led to read what Aristotle. 
Kant, Emerson, have to say upon this subject and be intro- 
duced as well to that larger life of ideal relationships from 
which these writers regard the dealings of friends. The 
topic of right attitudes toward a friend broadens out readily 
into such considerations as treating persons aright for their 
own sake or regarding them as ends per se, a dead abstrac- 
tion when approached as it is by Kant, but a living reality 
when the students get Aristotle's point about magnanimous 
treatment of friends. They can then proceed by way of 
contrast to note, for example, how this magnanimity was 
limited to friends in the upper levels of Athenian society, 
and went hand in hand with approval of slave labor and 
other exploitations which a modern conscience forbids. 
To give sharper edge to the conception of man as deserving 
right treatment for his own sake, the class might go on 
to examine other notable violations of personality in past 
and present; e. g., slavery (read for instance Sparr's 
History of the African Slave Trade) or the more recent 
cruelties toward the natives in the rubber regions of the 
Congo and the Amazon. Reference may also be made 
(without undue emphasis) to the white-slave traffic of today 
and the fact be noted that a right sense of chivalry will 
keep a man from partnership in the degradation which 
creates both the demand for white slavery and ultimately 
its supply. We mention this to show how a common prac- 
tical interest can be employed to introduce the students to so 
fundamental an ethical conception as the idea of inviolable 
human worth. It may, no doubt, be highly unconventional 
for them to begin with a discussion of friendship and after 
a few periods find themselves absorbed in these other ques- 
tions; but if care is exercised to sum up and to emphasize 



The Teaching of Ethics 323 

the big conceptions underlying the topic, we may be sure 
that their grasp of the subject will be no less firm than 
under the older method. Their acquaintance with a study 
requiring hard, abstract thinking will surely not be hurt, 
to say the least, by an introduction which is concrete and 
practical. 

Or take another matter of real concern to the student 
at this period of his life. He is certain to be giving some 
thought to the matter of his future vocation;, and here 
again is a topic which, properly handled, broadens out into 
the most far-reaching inquiries. It is to be regretted that 
as yet the vocational-guidance movement has been occupied 
in the main with external features — comparing jobs, mak- 
ing objective tests of efficiency, and so on. The central 
ethical conceptions are usually slighted. That one's voca- 
tion is a prime influence in the shaping of personality in 
oneself, in one's fellow workers, in the public served (or 
disserved) by one's work, in the world of nations in so far 
as war and peace are connected with commerce and other 
interchange of vocational products — all this is matter 
for the teacher who wishes the ethics course to work over 
into better living.^ Nor again, as will be noted later 
in the chapter, need the claims of the subject as a scholarly 
discipline suffer from such treatment. Questions of the 
nature of moral standards, of the distinction between ex- 
pedient and right, etc., can be taken up more profitably 
when, instead of dealing with the academic questions form- 
ing the stock in trade of most textbooks, the course ex- 
amines a few vocations, let us say, business, teaching, art, 
law, medicine, — in the light of such standards as these : 
A history of the calling; e.g., what has it contributed 
to the elevation of mankind, to the development of the arts 
and sciences, and to specific kinds of human betterment? 
What is the best service it can accomplish today? What 
traits does it require in those who pursue it? What traits 

1 See Adler: The Present World-Crisis and Its Meaning, chapter 
on "An Ethical Program of Social Reform"; also An Ethical 
Philosophy of Life, Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 



324 College Teaching 

is it likely to encourage in them for better and for worse? 
Report on great leaders in the calling, with special refer- 
ence to what their work made of them. What are the 
darker sides of the picture? What efforts are being made 
today to raise the moral code in this vocation? Sum up 
the ideal rewards. 

We do not mean, of course, that the only problems are 
those which center around the demands of today for a more 
just economic and social order. On the contrary, we be- 
lieve that the movement for social justice is greatly in 
need of precisely that appreciation of the claims of moral 
personality which it is the main business of ethical study 
to promote. But we shall never get our students to profit 
from their work in social ethics, or in ethical theory, or 
in any branch of the subject whatever, unless we keep 
fresh and close the contact with their own experiences 
and ambitions. 

Indeed, we venture to assert that unless this connection 
is kept unbroken, the subject is not ethics at all but an 
abstraction which ought to take some other name. Ethics 
deals with human volitions; but the latter term is meaning- 
less to the student save as he interprets it by his own ex- 
periences in the preference of better ways to lower. He 
knows the difficulties that arise in his own group-associa- 
tions, — his home or his class or his club, for example, 
— the conflicts of ambitions, the readiness to shirk 
one's share of common responsibility, the discordant prides 
and appetites of one sort and another which lead to overt 
injustices. All these should be used to throw light upon 
the living moral problems of group-life in the vocations, 
in the civic world, in the international order. 

Temperamentally, to be sure, the teacher may be in- 
clined to handle his subject in what, he prefers to regard 
as academic detachment. But where the subject is ethics 
and not dead print, complete aloofness is out of the 
question. There would be no textbooks in ethics if the 
men whose convictions are there recorded had not grappled 
earnestly with problems of vital moment to their day and 



The Teaching of Ethics 325 

generation. The crucial questions raised by a changing 
Athenian democracy were no matters of air-born specula- 
tion to Socrates and Plato and Aristotle. Nor is it an 
accident that the philosopher who so sought to vindicate 
the worth of man as an end per se should have sent from 
his apparently isolated study in Konigsberg his glad ac- 
claim of the French Revolution. The abounding interest 
of the English Utilitarians in the economics, the politics, 
the social reform, of the nineteenth century needs no com- 
ment. There are texts for study today because the men 
who wrote them were keenly concerned about a nobler 
mode of life for mankind. To invite the student to share 
their reflections without expecting worthier conduct is to 
ignore the essential purpose by which those reflections were 
prbmpted. 

Hence our first recommendation — that the content of Governing 

7 T. 77 -ITT • ' 7 ' : ^^™ i" ethics 

the etfiics courses be determined by the principal aim of teaching 

so interpreting the experiences and interests of the student 
as to stimulate worthier behavior through a better under- 
standing of the general problem of right human relation- 
ships. 

Our second recommendation as to aims is suggested by 
certain extremes in the practice of today. Reference to 
problems of immediate concern does not mean that ultimate 
considerations are to be shelved. Indeed, it must rather 
be stressed that such discussions miss their best object, if 
they fail to lead to searching reflection upon ultimate 
standards. The temptation to forego such inquiry today 
is strong. In their desire to be practical and up-to-date, 
many teachers are altogether too ready to rest the case 
for moral obligation upon a kind of easy-going hedonism, 
the fallacy of provisionalism, as Professor Felix Adler calls 
it. Tangible " goods " like happiness or " social values " 
are held up as standards, as if these values were ends 
in themselves and the problem of an ultimate human 
worth were irrelevant. 

It may very well be a modest attitude to say that we 
can no longer busy ourselves with the nature of ulti- 



326 College Teaching 

mate ends and that we can best employ our energies in 
trying to define the various goods which contribute now 
and here to human betterment. Let the effort be made, 
by all means. But when the last of empirical goods have 
been examined and appraised (assuming for the moment 
that we can indeed appraise without possessing ultimate 
norms) the cardinal question still waits for answer: To 
what are all these goods instrumental? What kind of life 
is best? What is it that permits man, with all his faults, 
his sordid appetites, his meannesses and gross dishonors, 
to hold his head erect as one yet worthy of the tribute 
implied in the fact that we have duties toward him? 

An answer satisfying to all may never be reached; but 
to evade these questions is to abdicate the teacher's func- 
tion. Many young people are led by the biologic teachings 
of the day to regard man as the utterly helpless product 
of his environment. Or they are so impressed with the 
obvious and immediate needs of whole masses for better 
food, better homes, greater opportunities for culture, that 
they do not stop to ask whether these goods are worth 
while in themselves, or if not, what is the deeper purpose 
to which they should minister. A conception of person- 
ality is needed, sufficiently exalted to permit the various 
immediate utilities to find their due place as tributes to 
the ideal excellence latent in man; and on the other hand 
there is need for a view of the spiritual life free from 
the misuse to which that term is put by the various cults 
evoked by reaction against modern mechanism. Pains- 
taking inquiry into the grounds upon which the assurance 
of human dignity can justify itself, has never been more 
urgently required.^ 

1 From this point of view the ethical justification for the war on the 
slum becomes: {a) to make possible for the slum-dweller the bet- 
ter performance of his various duties as parent, worker, citizen; (6) 
to drive home to all concerned the meaning of interdependence; (c) 
to clarify for all of us the ideals to which better living conditions 
should minister. There is every need today to further the convic- 
tion that the highest service we can perform for another is not to 
make him happier, but to help him make himself a better person 
through the better performance of his duties. 



The Teaching of Ethics 327 

Let us beware of surrenderinff to the common but often ideals and 
pernicious demand of our swift-moving America that in in ethics 
order to receive consideration a new idea should prove teaching 
itself capable of yielding immediate dividends. There 
seems to be a certain hesitancy today among some in our 
educated classes about speaking of " ideals." Ideals con- 
note a long look ahead. They imply a sense that there 
is something perfect even though the steps toward embody- 
ing or approximating it will be many and arduous, per- 
haps discouragingly hard. They betoken the likelihood of 
appearing before men as the victims of ultimately unwork- 
able dreams. In refreshing contrast is the seeming prac- 
ticability of encouraging present tendencies. Your ten- 
dency is no far-off projection of mere thought; it is 
something solid and " real," here and now, respected at 
the bank, in the newspaper office, and other meeting places 
of those whose heads are hard. Tendencies turn elections; 
ideals carry no such palpable witness of their power. 
" Hence let us study tendencies." 

This characterization is perhaps extreme, but the danger 
to which it refers is all too frequent. A strike, for instance, 
sets most of us to discussing ways by which this particular 
disturbance can be ended quickly. It is only the few 
who are willing to hold in mind both terms of the prob- 
lem, namely the procedure for tomorrow morning and the 
positive ideal toward which all our vocational life should 
set its face even if the distant tomorrow is still so far 
ahead. So of our conceptions of political life. A given 
election may indeed involve an immediate moral issue; but 
even the issue of next month can be faced properly only 
when it is related to an ideal of public life which may have 
to wait long years for appreciation by the majority. 
Nothing is more necessary in a democracy than a leader- 
ship trained in the long forward look, trained in distinguish- 
ing morally right and morally wrong from expedient, and 
best from merely better, trained in the courage to cham- 
pion a distant ideal in the face of clamor to accept some 
inferior but belligerently present substitute. 



328 



College Teaching 



Course in 
ethics pre- 
scribed, and 
early in col- 
lege course 



Sequence 
determined 
by develop- 
ment of the 
student 



In short, the student should be offered every encourage- 
ment to thinking out the ultimate obligations of his own life 
and of his various groups and to reaching the conviction that 
there is such a reality as a permanent human worth, a fun- 
damentally right way for men and women to seek, a Tight- 
ness whose authority is undiminished by the blunders of the 
human mind in trying to define it. An ever more earnest 
attempt to find that way, and to find it by practice illumined 
by all the knowledge that can be brought to bear, should 
be the leading object. Not a series of definitions and quo- 
tations, nor yet a little information about the social move- 
ments of our time, but a truer understanding of life as 
the result of interpreting it in terms of the obligation to 
create right human adjustments — such an aim saves college 
ethics alike from dryness and from superficial attempts 
to sprinkle interest over a subject of inherent and intense 
practical importance. 

It is not essential that an introductory course in ethics 
should enter into the philosophy of religion. This may be 
left to other agencies, like the church, or to later courses, 
with every confidence that the outcome will be sound if 
mind and soul and will (to use the old formula) are first 
enlisted in behalf of noble conduct. Whatever thinking the 
student may do along these lines will be the better if its 
nurture is drawn first from moral thinking and moral 
practice.^ 

From the foregoing it follows that the ethics course 
should be taken by all the students. The earlier it can be 
given the better, inasmuch as its demands upon their con- 
duct apply to all the years of their life, and because the 
whole career at college is more likely to benefit from be- 
ginning early such reflections as this study particularly 
invites. 

The sequence of courses will perhaps be best deter- 
mined by remembering the need of following the natural 
growth of the student. Experiences come first and then 

1 Note the emphasis placed by modern philosophy upon ethical 
value as the point of approach to the problem of Godhead. 



The Teaching of Ethics 



329 



the interpretations. Hence the insistence upon the prac- 
tical content of the introductory courses. Theory and his- 
tory should follow, not precede. Nobody is interested in 
the history or the theory of a thing unless he is interested 
in the thing itself. Furthermore, we must bear in mind 
the needs of those students who are not likely to care 
enough for the more theoretical aspects to continue the sub- 
ject. If the introductory course is to be all that they take, 
obviously the more practical we can make it the better. 

As to method, a variety of profitable ways abounds if 
only the contact with life is kept close and the principles 
studied are tested by their outcome in the life which the 
student knows best. In general, the best procedure is to 
work back from concrete instances to the principles under- 
lying the problem, formulate the principles and test them 
in other fields. Our illustrative strike, for instance, can be 
used to throw light upon the actual and the ideal prin- 
ciples involved in human relationship in some such manner 
as the following: 

What do the employers want? What do they mean by 
liberty? What were the circumstances under which Mill 
formulated his principle of " liberty within the limits of 
non-infringement? " What have been the consequences in 
America of reliance upon this formula? Why does it break 
down in practice? Compare it with the theory of the 
balance of power in international relations. What is likely 
to be the effect of the possession of power upon the posses- 
sor himself? 

Restate the ideal of liberty in terms of duty, not of privi- 
lege. What are the obstacles to the fulfillment of such 
an ideal in industry? In homes? What are the personal 
obstacles to clear understanding of the meaning of right? 

What do the workers want? Examine each of their de- 
mands — shorter hours, more pay, recognition of the union, 
etc. What should the granting of these demands con- 
tribute to their lives? Give instances to show whether 
" better off " means better persons or not. 

Compare the working man's use of the word " liberty " 



In teaching 
ethics fol- 
low the 
maxim from 
the con- 
crete to the 
abstract 



Method of 
procedure il- 
lustrated 



330 



College Teaching 



with that of the employer. Why do workers often become 
oppressors when they themselves become employers? What 
is the difference between demanding a redress of your 
grievance and making a moral demand? What makes the 
cry of fraternity as uttered by the workers repugnant to 
those who otherwise would accept fraternity as an ideal? 

How would you formulate the ideal for the vocational 
life of the factory worker? Apply it to other vocations 
— journalism, law, teaching. Sum up the ideal rewards 
of work. 

Make tentative definitions of liberty, rights, duty, justice. 



Place of 
the text- 
book in 
ethics teach- 
ing 



Each of the questions mentioned above — and many more 
will occur in the course of the discussion — furnishes occa- 
sion for extended considerations that call upon the student 
for scholarly gathering of facts, for close thinking, and — 
not least — for reflection upon his own experiences and 
volitions. Other problems will suggest themselves. It is 
obvious how the interest of the student in prison reform, 
for example, can be employed in like manner as a motive to 
searching reflection upon questions of moral responsibility. 
The principle that punishment should be a means of 
awaking in the offender the consciousness of a self which 
can and should hold itself to account despite the magnitude 
of its temptations is of special usefulness, in the years 
when a broadening altruism (and we might add, a tendency 
to self-pity) is likely to lead to loose notions of personal 
obligation. 

The use of a textbook is a minor matter. To prevent the 
courses from running off^ into mere talk — and even ethics 
classes are not averse to " spontaneous " recitation on their 
own part or to monologues by the teacher — a textbook may 
be required, with, let us say, monthly reports or examina- 
tions. So much depends, however, upon the enthusiasm of 
the instructor that here particularly recommendations can 
be only of the most general kind. Some of the most effec- 
tive work in this subject is being done by teachers who 
forget the textbook for weeks at a time in order to push 



The Teaching of Ethics 



331 



home a valuable inquiry suggested by an unforeseen prob- 
lem raised in the course of the discussion. Others use 
no textbooks at all. Some outline the year's work in a 
series of cases or problems with questions to be answered 
in writing after consulting selected passages in the classics 
or in current literature or in both.i This method has the 
advantage of laying out the whole year's work beforehand 
and of guaranteeing that the student comes to the class- 
room with something more than a facility in unpremedi- 
tated utterance. It is generally found to be of greater in- 
terest because it follows the lines of his own ordinary 
thinking — first the problem and then the attempt to find 
the principles that will help to solve it. 

More important than any of these details of technique 
is the need of helping the student to clarify his thinking by 
engaging in some practical moral endeavor. The broaden- 
ing and deepening of the altruistic interests is a familiar 
feature of adolescent life. The instructor in ethics, in the 
very interest of his own subject, is the one who should take 
the lead in encouraging these expressions, not only because 
of the general obligation of the college to make the most 
of aptitudes which, neglected in youth, may never again 
be so vigorous, but also because of the truth in Aristotle's 
dictum that insight is shaped by conduct. Hence the work 
in ethics should be linked up wherever possible with student 
self-government and other participation in the management 
of the college, and with philanthropies like work in settle- 
ments or in social reform groups or cosmopolitan societies. 
For the students of finer grain it is eminently worth the 
trouble to form clubs to intensify the spirit of the members 
by activities more pointedly directed to the refining of 
human relationships. They might engage in activities in 
which the task of elevating the personality is specially 
marked, that is, in problems which have to do with mutual 

1 Professor Sharp of Wisconsin has found this method so serviceable 
that he has interested many teachers in his state and elsewhere in 
usmg it with high school students for purposes of moral instruction. 
See "A Course in Moral Instruction for High Schools," by F. C. 
Sharp; Bulletin, University of Wisconsin. 



Moral con- 
cepts deep- 
ened by par- 
ticipation 
in social or 
philan- 
thropic en- 
deavors 



332 



College Teaching 



Peculiar 
difficulty 
of applying 
usual test 
to courses 
in ethics 



interpretation — e.g., black folk and white, foreign and 
native stocks in America, delinquents and the community, 
immigrant parents and unsympathetic children. They 
might organize clubs for one or more of these purposes, 
for discussing intimately the problems of personal life, for 
public meetings on the ethics of the vocations and on the 
more distinctly ethical phases of political and international 
progress. Such organizations can be made to do vastly more 
good for their members then the average debating society, 
with its usual premium on mere forensic skill, or the fra- 
ternity, with its encouragement of snobbishness. The 
wholesome thing about the spirit of fraternity should be set 
to work upon some such creative activities as we have men- 
tioned. Not only does the comradeship strengthen faith in 
right doing, but these practical endeavors offer a notable 
help to the deepening, extending, and clarifying of that in- 
terest in moral progress without which there can be none 
of the intelligent leadership for which our democracy looks 
to its colleges. 

To test how far the subject has been of value to the 
student is unusually difficult. His interest in the discussions 
is by no means an unfailing index. There are those who 
may be both eager and skilled in the intellectual combat 
incidental to the course but whose lives remain untouched 
for the better. The worthier outcome is hard to trace. 
It is quite possible for the teacher to take credit for the 
instilling of an ideal whose generation was due to some 
agency wholly unknown, perhaps even to the student him- 
self. On the other hand, the best results may take years 
for overt appearance. In the nature of the case, their 
more intimate expressions can never be recorded. 

Moreover, students vary in the force of character which 
they bring with them to the study. A lad whose home 
training has been deficient may take more time than the best 
teacher can give in order to reach the degree of excellence to 
which others among his classmates ascend more quickly. 
Or a lad whom the course has moved with a desire to take 
up some philanthropic endeavor may hesitate to pursue 



The Teaching of Ethics 333 



it through lack of the necessary gift or failure in self- 
confidence. The forces which enter into the making of 
character are so complex, including as they do not only 
acquisitions of new moral standards, but temperamental 
qualities, early training, potent example, physical stamina, 
dozens of accidental circumstances, that it is unfair to use 
the tests applicable, let us say, to a course in engineering. 
Hence we must be beware of testing the value of the work 
by immediate results. Something may be gathered by hav- 
ing the students write confidentially what they think the 
course has done for them and where it could be improved. 
This they can do both at the end of the course and years 
later when time has brought perspective. But tests are 
of minor importance. The ethical shortcomings of our 
time, the constant need of our students for ever finer 
standards, convey challenge enough. Even though the ob- 
vious results fall short of our hopes, we can make the 
most of our resources with every assurance that they are 
amply needed. Are young men more likely to be the 
better for setting time aside to obtain with the help of 
an earnest student of life a clearer insight into the prin- 
ciples of the best living? If they are, the courses are 
justified, even though some who take them can show little 
immediate profit. 

Henry Neumann, Ph.D. 

Ethical Culture School, New York 



XVI 
THE TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY 



Place of psy- 
chology in 
the curricu- 
lum 



The intro- 
ductory 
course to 
he general, 
not voca- 
tionally 
applied psy- 
chology 



HISTORICALLY, as an offshoot, and rather a re- 
cent offshoot, from philosophy, psychology has been 
under the care of the department of philosophy in 
colleges and universities, foreign as well as Ameri- 
can, and has been taught by professors concerned 
in part with the courses in philosophy. Though this 
state of affairs still obtains to a considerable extent, 
the tendency is undoubtedly towards allowing psychology 
an independent position in the organization and curriculum 
of the college. In recent appointments, indeed, the affili- 
ation of psychology with education has frequently been 
emphasized instead of its affiliation with philosophy, for 
the professional applications of psychology lie more in 
the field of education than elsewhere. As a required study, 
our science is more likely to find a place in the college 
for teachers than in the college of arts. But, on the other 
hand, the applications to medicine, business, and industry 
are increasing so rapidly in importance as to make it logi- 
cal to maintain an independent position for the science. 
Only in an independent position can the psychologist be 
free to cultivate the central body of his subject, the 
"pure" as distinguished from the applied science; and, 
with the multiplication of practical applications, it is more 
than ever important to center psychological teaching in 
the person of some one who is simply and distinctively a 
psychologist. 

For a similar reason, psychologists are wont to insist that 
the introductory course in their subject, no matter for what 
class of students, with general or with professional aims, 
should be definitely a course in psychology as distinguished 
from educational or medical or business psychology. 
Illustrative material may very well be chosen with an eye 
to the special interests of a class of students, but the gen- 

334 



The Teaching of Psychology 335 



eral principles should be the same for all classes, and 
should not be too superficially treated in the rush for 
practical applications. Some years ago, a Committee of 
the American Psychological Association was appointed to 
make a survey of the teaching of psychology in universities, 
colleges, and normal schools, and the Report of this Com- 
mittee (1), still the most important contribution to the 
pedagogy of the subject, emphasizes the concurrent view 
of psychologists to the effect just stated, that the study of 
psychology should begin with a course in the central body 
of doctrine. The psychological point of view must be 
acquired before intelligent application can be made, 
whether to practical pursuits or to other branches of study 
such as philosophy and the social sciences, to which 
psychology stands in the relation of an ancillary science. 

During the war, the applications of psychology in the 
testing and selection of men and training them for specified 
military and naval work, in rating officers, in morale and 
intelligence work, and in several other lines, became so 
important that it was decided to give psychology a place 
as an " allied subject " in the curriculum of the Students' 
Army Training Corps; and the report of the committee of 
psychologists that prepared the outline of a course for this 
purpose deserves attention as a contribution to the pedagogy 
of the subject. They proposed a course on " Human 
Action," to be free from questions of a speculative or 
theoretical nature and concentrated on matters relevant to 
military practice and the military uses of psychology. The 
aim was to enlist the student's practical concern at the very 
outset, and to give him the psychological point of view as 
applied to his problems as a member of the Army and a 
prospective officer. In method, the course was to depend 
little on lectures, or even on extensive readings, and much 
on the student's own solution of practical psychological 
problems. Evidently the psychologists who prepared this 
plan were driven by the emergency to abandon " academic " 
prepossessions in favor of a course in pure psychology 
as the necessary prerequisite to any study of applications; 



College Teaching 



The psy- 
chological 
point of 
view must 
be empha- 
sized in the 
introductory 
course 



Values of 
the study of 
psychology 
— cultural 
rather than 
disciplinary 



and it is quite possible that courses in psychology for 
different groups of students could be prepared that should 
follow this general plan and be intensely practical from 
the start. It would still remain true that the thorough 
psychologist should be the one to plan and conduct such 
courses. 

The psychological point of view means attentiveness to 
certain matters that are neglected in the usual objective 
attitude toward things. It is identified by many with in- 
trospection, but there is at present considerable dissent 
from this doctrine, the dissenters holding that an objective 
type of observation of human behavior is distinctively 
psychological and probably more significant and fruitful 
than the introspective attitude. However this may be, both 
introspection and behavior study require attention to mat- 
ters that are commonly disreg'arded. Every one is of 
course interested in what people do, or at least in the out- 
come of their activities; but psychology is interested in the 
activities themselves, in how the outcome is reached rather 
than in the outcome itself. Ordinarily, we are interested 
in the fact that an inventor has solved a problem, but 
regard it as rather irrelevant if he proceeds to tell us 
the mental process by which he reached the solution. We 
are interested in the fact that a child has learned to speak, 
but devote little thought to the question as to how he has 
learned. It is to bring such psychological questions to 
light and arouse intelligent interest in them, with some 
knowledge of the answers that have been found, that the 
psychologist is chiefly concerned when initiating beginners 
into his science. This primary aim is accomplished in the 
case of those students who testify, as some do, that the 
course in psychology has " opened their eyes " and made 
them see life in a different light than hitherto. 

Whether this primary value of psychology is to be 
counted among the disciplinary or among the cultural 
values may be a matter of doubt. Psychologists them- 
selves have seldom made special claims in behalf of their 
science as a means of formal discipline, many of them, in 



\ 



TJie Teaching of Psychology 337 

fact, taking a very negative position with regard to the 
whole conception of such discipline. What psychology 
can give of general value is a point of view, and a habit 
of attentiveness to the mental factor. The need of some 
systematic attention to these matters often comes to light 
in the queer efforts at a psychology made by intelligent but 
uninstructed persons in the presence of practical problems 
involving the mental factor. 

Besides this " cultural " value, and besides the special The practi- 
uses of psychology as a preparation for teaching and cer- 
tain other professions, there is a very real and practical 
value to be expected from an understanding of the mental 
mechanism. Since every one works with this mechanism, 
every one can make practical use of the science of it. Most 
persons get on passably well, perhaps, without any expert 
knowledge of the machinery which they are running; yet 
the machine is not entirely " fool proof," by any means, 
but sometimes comes to grief from what is in essence a 
lack of psychological wisdom either in the person himself 
or in his close companions. Mental hygiene, in short, de- 
pends on psychology. The college student, looking for- 
ward to a life of mental activity, is specially in a position 
to utilize information regarding the most economical work- 
ing of the mental machine; and, as a matter of experience, . 
some students are considerably helped in their methods of 
mental work by what they learn in the psychology class. 
Among the results of recent investigation are many bearing 
on economy and efficiency of mental work. This value 
of psychology, it will be seen, is practical without being 
professional — except in so far as all educated men can 
be said to adopt the profession of mental engineer. Much 
more emphasis than has been customary might well be laid 
on this side of the subject in elementary courses. 

The content of the first course in psychology is just now Content of 
undergoing a certain amount of revision. Traditionally the ductory 
aim has been, not so much, as in most other subjects, to psychoioW 
initiate the student into a range of facts lying outside his 
previous experience, as to bring definitely to his attention 



338 College Teaching 

facts lying within the experience of all, and to cause him to 
classify these so as to refer any given mental process to 
the class or classes where it belongs. This calls for 
definition, the making of distinctions, the analysis of com- 
plex facts, the use of a technical vocabulary, and in general 
for much more precision of statement than the student has 
been used to employ in speaking of such matters. Some 
laws of mental action, verifiable within ordinary experience, 
are also brought to light in such a course, and some ac- 
count of the neural mechanisms of mental life is usually 
included; but its chief accomplishment is in leading the stu- 
dent to attend to mental processes and gain a point of 
view that may remain his future possession. 

With the great expansion of psychological knowledge in 
recent decades, due to research by experimental and other 
empirical methods, it has become possible to give a course 
more informational in character and going quite beyond the 
range of the student's previous experience; and this new 
material is finding its way into elementary texts and 
courses. Many of the results of research are not at all be- 
yond the comprehension of the beginner; indeed, they are 
often more tangible than the distinctions and analyses that 
give the stamp to the traditional course. These empirical 
results also have the advantage, in many cases, of throwing 
light on the practical problems of mental health and ef- 
ficiency; and some inclusion of such material is desirable 
if only to fit the needs of the considerable number of 
students who cannot become interested in a course of the 
traditional sort. Practice in this matter is at present quite 
variable, some teachers basing the introductory course as 
far as possible on the results of experiment, and others 
adhering closely to the older plan. 
Methods of There is certainly some advantage in keeping the first 
choiogjf— ^" course untechnical. The student can then be set to ob- 
Practicai serving for himself, instead of depending on books. Many 
of the facts of psychology are so accessible, at least in a 
rough form, as to make the subject a good one for appeal- 
ing to the spirit of independence in the student. Some 



exercises 



The Teaching of Psychology 339 

teachers are, in fact, accustomed to introduce each part of 
the subject by exercises, introspective or other, designed to 
bring the salient facts home to the student in a direct way, 
before he has become inoculated with the doctrine of the 
authorities. " The essential point is that the student be led 
to observe his own experience, to record his observation 
accurately — in a word, to psychologize; and to make the 
observation before, not after, discovering from book or 
from lecture what answers are expected to these questions. 
Individual experiments should so far as possible be per- 
formed in like manner before the class discussion of typical 
results. In all cases the results of these introspections 
should be recorded in writing; representative records 
should be read and commented on in class; and the dis- 
cussion based on them should form the starting point for 
textbook study and for lecture." The plan thus highly 
recommended by Professor Calkins ^ she found not to be 
widely used at the time of her inquiry; a commoner prac- 
tice was the assignment of reading for the student's first 
introduction to a given topic. This alternative plan is a 
line of less resistance; and it is also true that exercises in 
original observation by beginners in psychology are likely 
to be instructive mostly as evidence of the ineptness of the 
beginner in psychological observation. Moreover, when 
the content of the course is informational and based on the 
results of research, preliminary exercises by the student 
are of rather limited value, though they still could serve 
a useful purpose in bringing forcibly to his attention the 
problems to be studied. 

The use of " exercises," somewhat analogous to the ex- 
amples of algebra or the " originals " of geometry, is quite 
widespread in introductory courses in psychology, and 
several much-used textbooks offer sets of exercises with 
each chapter. Several types are in vogue: (1) some call 
for introspections, as, for example, " Think of your break- 
fast table as you sat down to it this morning — do you see 
it clearly as a scene before your mind's eye? " (2) some 

1 In Report, pages 50-51. 



340 College Teaching 

call for a review and generalization of facts presumably 
already known, as " Find instances of the dependence of 
character upon habit;" (3) many consist of simple experi- 
ments demanding no special apparatus and serving to give 
a direct acquaintance with matters treated in the text, such 
as after-images or fluctuations of attention; and (4) many 
call for the application of the principles announced in the 
text to special cases, the object being to " give the student 
some very definite thing to do" (Thorndike), in doing 
which he will secure a firm hold of the principles in- 
volved. In general, teachers of psychology aim to " keep 
the student doing things, instead of merely listening, read- 
ing, or seeing them done" (Seashore, 1, page 83). In a 
few colleges, laboratory work of a simple character forms 
part of the introductory course, and in one or two the 
laboratory part is developed to a degree comparable with 
what is common in chemistry or biology. As a rule, how- 
ever, considerations of time and equipment have prevented 
the introduction of real laboratory work into the first 
course in psychology. 
Classroom Of classroom methods, perhaps all that are employed 

The lecture ^^ other subjects find application also in psychology, some 
teachers preferring one and some another. The lecture 
method is employed with great success by some of the 
leaders, who devote much attention to the preparation of 
discourse and demonstrations. One professor (anonymous) 
is quoted^ as follows: 

" I must here interject my ideas on the lecture system. 
The lecture has a twofold advantage over the recitation. 
(1) It is economical, since one man handles a large num- 
ber of students; the method of recitation is extravagant. 
This fact alone will mean the retention of the lecture system, 
wherever it can possibly be employed with success. (2) 
It is educationally the better method, for the average stu- 
dent and the average teacher. For the reconstruction of a 
lecture from notes means an essay in original work, in 

1 By Sanford, 1, page 66. 



The Teaching of Psychology 341 



original thinking; while the recitation lapses all too readily 
into textbook rote and verbal repetition. 

" It is, nevertheless, true that sophomore students are on 
the whole inadequate to a lecture course. They cannot 
take notes; they cannot tear the heart out of a lecture. 
(They are also, I may add, inadequate to the reading of 
textbooks or general literature, in much the same way.) 
Hence one has to supplement the lecture by syllabi, by lists 
of questions (indexes, so to speak, to the lectures), and by 
personal interviews. . . . 

" The sum and substance of my recommendations is that 
you provide a competently trained instructor, and let him 
teach psychology as he best can. What the student needs 
is the effect of an individuality, a personality; and the 
lecture system provides admirably for such effect." 

Though the lecture system is used with great success by The 
a number of professors, the general practice inclines more 
to the plan of oral recitations on assigned readings in one 
or more texts, and large classes are often handled in several 
divisions in order to make the recitation method successful. 
Not infrequently a combination of lectures by the pro- 
fessor and recitations conducted by his assistants is the plan 
adopted, the lecturer to add impressiveness to the course, 
and the recitations to hold the student up to his work. Writ- 
ten exercises, such as those already mentioned, are often 
combined with the oral recitation; and in some cases themes 
are to be written by the students. Probably the seminar 
method, in which the subject is chiefly presented in themes 
prepared by the students, is never attempted in the intro- 
ductory course. 

On the other hand, a number of successful teachers re- 
ject both the lecture and the recitation methods, and rely 
for the most part upon class discussions, with outside 
readings in the textbooks, and frequent written recitations 
as a check on the student's work. A champion of the dis- 
cussion method writes as follows: ^ 



recitation 



Class 
discussion 



1 Calkins, 1, pages 47-48. 



342 College Teaching 

" A teacher has not the right to spend any considerable 
part of the time of a class in finding out by oral questions 
. . . whether or not the student has done the work as- 
signed to him. The good student does not need the ques- 
tions and is bored by the stumbling replies which he hears; 
and even the poor student does not get what he needs, 
which is either instruction a deux, or else a corrected writ- 
ten recitation. . . . Not in this futile way should the in- 
structor squander the short hours spent with his students. 
The purpose of these hours is twofold: first, to give to the 
students such necessary information as they cannot gain, or 
cannot so expediently gain, in some other way; second, and 
most important, to incite them to ' psychologize ' for them- 
selves. The first of these purposes is best gained by the 
lecture, the second by guided discussion. ' Guided dis- 
cussion ' does not mean a reversal of the recitation proc- 
ess — an hour in which students ask questions in any 
order, and of any degree of relevancy and seriousness, 
which the instructor answers. On the contrary, the in- 
structor initiates and leads the discussion; he chooses its 
subject, maps out its field, pulls it back when it threatens 
to transgress its bonds, and, from time to time, summarizes 
its results. This he does, however, with the least possible 
show of his hand. He puts his question and leaves it to 
the student interested to answer him; he restates the bung- 
ling answer and the confused question; he leaves one 
student to answer the difficulties of another. . . . The ad- 
vantage of the discussion over the lecture is, thus, that it 
fosters in the student the active attitude of the thinker in 
place of the passive attitude of the listener. . . . 
Obviously it is simplest to teach large classes by lecturing 
to them. Yet a spirited and relevant discussion may be 
conducted in a class of a hundred or so. Of course no 
more than eight or twelve, or, at most, twenty of these will 
take even a small part on a given day; perhaps a half or 
two thirds will never take part; and some will remain un- 
interested. But there will be many intelligent listeners as 
well as active participants; and these gain more, I be- 



The Teaching of Psychology 343 



lieve, by the give and take of a good discussion than by 
constant lectures however effective." 

Brief mention should be made of a form of class ex- Class 
ercise peculiar to psychology, the "class experiment." ^^p^""^®^*^ 
This is in some respects like a demonstration, but differs 
from that in calling for a more active participation on the 
part of the student. Any psychological experiment is per- 
formed on a human (or animal) subject, and many ex- 
periments can be performed on a group of subjects to- 
gether, each of them being called on to perform a certain 
task or to make a certain observation. Each of the class 
having made his individual record, the instructor may 
gather them together into an average or summary state- 
ment, and the individual variations as well as the general 
tendency may thus be brought to light. Very satisfactory 
and even scientific experiments can thus be performed, with 
genuine results instructive to the class. 

Of methods of holding the student to his work, mention Checking 
has already been made of the much-used written recitation, of the 
The usual plan is to have frequent, very brief written ex- students 
aminations. Sometimes the practice is to correct and re- 
turn all the papers; sometimes to place them all on file and 
correct samples chosen at random for determining the 
student's " term mark." A plan that has some psycho- 
logical merit is to follow the examination immediately by 
a statement of the correct answers, with brief discussion of 
difficulties that may arise, and to ask each student to esti- 
mate the value of his own paper in the standard marking 
system. The papers are then collected and examined, and 
returned with the instructor's estimate. 

Since an examination is, in effect, a form of psycho- 
logical test, it is natural that psychologists should have 
attempted to introduce some of the technique of psycho- 
logical testing into the work of examining students, in the 
interest of economy of the student's time as well as that 
of the examiner. The teacher prepares blanks which the 
student can quickly fill out if he knows the subject, not 
•otherwise. To discover how far the student has attained 



344 



College Teaching 



Place of 
psychology 
in the col- 
lege course 



a psychological point of view, written work or examination 
questions often demand some independence in the applica- 
tion to new cases of what has been learned. Far-reaching 
tests of the later value to the student of a course in 
psychology have not as yet been attempted. 

No attempt has yet been made to obtain the consensus 
of opinion among psychologists as to whether the intro- 
ductory course should be required of all arts students, and 
probably opinions would differ, without anything definitive 
to be said on either side. In quite a number of colleges 
psychology forms part of a required general course in 
philosophy. Where a separation has occurred between 
philosophy and psychology, the latter is seldom absolutely 
required. As a general rule, however, the introductory 
course, even if not required, is taken by a large share of 
the arts students. The traditional position for the course in 
psychology is late in the college curriculum, originally in 
the senior but more recently in the junior year. In many 
of the larger colleges it is now open to sophomores or even 
to freshmen. One motive for pushing the introductory 
course back into the earlier years is naturally to provide 
for more advanced courses in the subject; and another is 
the desire to make psychology prerequisite for courses in 
philosophy, education, or sociology. Still another motive 
tending in the same direction is the desire to make the 
practical benefits of psychological study available for the 
student in the further conduct of his work as a student in 
whatever field. If considerable attention is devoted in the 
introductory course to questions of mental hygiene and 
efficiency, the advantage of bringing these matters early to 
the attention of the student outweighs the objection which 
is often raised by teachers of psychology, as of other sub- 
jects, to admitting the younger students, on the ground of 
immaturity. The teachers who get the younger students 
may have to put up with immaturity in order that the bene- 
fit of their teaching may be carried over by the students 
into later parts of the curriculum. 

When the introductory course in psychology forms part 



TJie Teacliing of Psychology 345 



Content of 
advanced 
courses in 
psychology 



of a course in philosophy, it is usually restricted to one Length of 
semester, with three hours of class work per week. When ductory° 
psychology is an independent subject in the curriculum, a course 
two-semester course is usually provided, since it is the 
feeling of psychologists that this amount of time is needed 
in order to make the student really at home in the subject, 
and to realize for him the values that are looked for from 
psychology. Often there is a break between the two 
semesters of such a course, the second being devoted to 
advanced or social or applied psychology. Sometimes, on 
the other hand, the two-semester course is treated as a unit, 
the various topics being distributed over the year; this 
latter procedure is probably the one that finds most favor 
with psychologists. Still, good results can be obtained 
with the semester course supplemented by other courses. 

The most frequent advanced course is one in experimental 
psychology. This is taken by only a small fraction of 
those who have taken the introductory course, partly be- 
cause the laboratory work attached to the experimental 
course demands considerable time from the student, partly 
because students are not encouraged to go into the 
laboratory unless they have a pretty serious interest in the 
subject. For a student who has it in him to become some- 
what of an " insider " in psychology, no course is the equal 
of the laboratory course, supplemented by judicious read- 
ings in the original sources or in advanced treatises. Next 
in frequency to the experimental course stands that in ap- 
plied psychology, since the recent applications of psy- 
chology to business, industry, vocational guidance, law, 
and medicine appeal to a considerable number of college 
students. Other courses which appear not infrequently in 
college curricula are those in social, abnormal, and animal 
psychology. No precise order is necessary in the taking 
of these courses, and it is not customary to make any be- 
yond the introductory course prerequisite for the others. 

Robert S. Woodworth 

Columbia University 



346 College Teaching 



Bibliography 

Many of the textbooks contain, in their prefaces, important sug- 
gestions toward the teaching of the subject. There are also fre- 
quent articles in the psychological journals on apparatus for 
demonstrations and class or laboratory experiments, 

1. Report of the Committee of the American Psychological Associa- 

tion on the Teaching of Psychology. Psychological Monographs, 
No. 51, 1910. 

2. American Psychological Association, Report of the Committee on 

the Academic Status of Psychology, 1915 : " The Academic 
Status of Psychology in the Normal Schools." 

3. Same Committee, 1916: "A Survey of Psychological Investiga- 

tions with Reference to Differentiations between Psychological 
Experiments and Mental Tests." Concerned with the availability 
of mental tests as material for the experimental course. 

4. Courses in Psychology for the Students' Army Training Corps. 

Psychological Bulletin, 1918, 15, 129-136. See also the Outlines 
of parts of the course in the same journal, pages 137-167, 
177-206; and a note on the success of the courses by Edgar S. 
Brightman, in the Bulletin for 1919, pages 24-26. 



XVII 



THE TEACHING OF EDUCATION 

A. Teaching the History of Education in 
College 

THERE are three main kinds of educational value; viz., 
practical, cultural, and disciplinary. These three 
types of educational value probably originated in the order 
in which they are here mentioned. In early educational 
periods, all values are practical, or utilitarian. With the 
growth of social classes, some values become cultural ; viz., 
those pursued by the upper classes. The disciplinary values 
are recognized when studies cease to have the practical 
and cultural values. 

By the " educational value " of a subject we mean, of 
course, the service which the pursuit of that subject ren- 
ders. Any one subject will naturally have all three values, 
but no two subjects will have the same values mixed in the 
same proportion. The practical value of a subject depends 
on the use in life to which it can be put, especially its use 
in making a living. The cultural value of a subject depends 
largely on the enjoyment it contributes to life. While cul- 
ture does not make a living, it makes it worth while that 
a living should be made. The disciplinary value of a 
subject depends on the amount of mental training that 
subject affords. Such mental training is available in fur- 
ther pursuit of the same, or a similar, subject. It is the 
fashion of educational thinking in our day to put greatest 
stress on the practical values, less on the cultural, and least 
on the disciplinary. There is no denying the reality of 
each type of value. 

Now, what is the value of the history of education? 
There are no experimental studies as yet, nor scientific 
measurements, upon which to base an answer. The poor 
best we can do is to express an opinion. This opinion is 

347 



Kinds of 

educational 

values 



Meaning of 
educational 
values 



Value of the 
history of 
education 



348 



College Teaching 



Its cultural 
value 



Its prac- 
tical value 



based on the views of others and on the writer's experience 
in teaching the history of education ten years in a liberal 
college (Dartmouth) and ten years in a professional gradu- 
ate school (New York University). On this basis I should 
say that the aim of the history of education, at least as 
recorded in existing texts, is first cultural, then practical, 
and last disciplinary. Texts yet to be written for the use 
of teachers in training may shift the places of the cultural 
and the practical. This new type of text will give the 
history, not of educational epochs in chronological suc- 
cession, but of modern educational problems in their origin 
and development.^ 

As cultural, the history of education is the record of the 
efforts of society to project its own ideals into the future 
through shaping the young and plastic generation. There 
comes into this purview the successive social organizations, 
their ideals, and the methods utilized in embodying these 
ideals in young lives. Interpretations of the nature of social 
progress, the contribution of education to such progress, 
and the goal of human progress, naturally arise for dis- 
cussion, and the history of education well taught as the 
effort of man to improve himself is both informing and in- 
spiring. This is the cultural value of the history of edu- 
cation. The sense of the meaning and value of human life 
is enhanced. As President Faunce says,^ " A college of 
arts and sciences which has no place for the study of student 
life past and present, no serious consideration of the great 
schools which have largely created civilization, is a curi- 
ously one-sided and illiberal institution." 

As practical, the history of education, even when taught 

^ " A New Method in the History of Education," School Review Mon- 
ographs, No. 3, H. H. Home. 
~ Quoted in School and Society, Vol. 5, page 23, from President 
Faunae's annual report. Recent articles on the cultural value of 
courses in education are: 

J, M. Mecklin, " The Problem of the Training of the Secondary 
Teacher," School and Society, Vol. 4, pages 64-67. 

H. E. Townsend, " The Cultural Value of Courses in Education," 
School and Society, Vol. 4, pages 175-176. 



The Teaching of Education 349 

from the customary general texts, throws some light on such 
everyday school matters as educational organization, the best 
methods of teaching, the right principles of education for 
women, how to manage classes, and the art of administering 
education. History cannot give the final answer to such 
questions, but it makes a contribution to the final an- 
swer in reporting the results of racial experience and in 
assisting students to understand present problems in the 
light of their past. The history of education has a prac- 
tical value, but it is not alone the source of guidance. 

As disciplinary, the history of education shows the value its disci- 
of all historical study. The appeal is mainly to the mem- JaiuT^ 
ory and the judgment. The teaching is inadequate, if the 
appeal is only to the memory. The judgment must also 
be requisitioned in comparing, estimating, generalizing, and 
applying. Memory is indispensable in retaining the knowl- 
edge of the historical facts, and judgment is utilized in 
seeing the meaning of these facts. With all studies in 
general, history shares in training perceptive, associative, 
and effortful activities. Training in history is commonly 
supposed also to make one conservative, in contrast with 
training in science, which is supposed to make one progres- 
sive. But this result is not necessary, being dependent upon 
one's attitude toward the past. If past events are viewed 
as a lapse from an ideal, the study of history makes one 
conservative and skeptical about progress. If, on the other 
hand, the past is viewed as progress toward an ideal, the 
study of history makes one progressive, and expectant of 
the best that is yet to be. But, even so, familiarity with the 
past breeds criticism of quick expedients whereby humanity 
is at last to arrive. On the whole, the disciplinary value 
of the history of education is attained as an incident of 
its cultural and practical values. We are no longer trying 
to discipline the mind by memorizing lists of names and 
dates, though they be such euphonious names as those of 
the native American Indian tribes, but we are striving to 
understand man's past and present efforts at conscious 
self-improvement. 



350 



College Teaching 



The various 
aims of 
students 



A student's 
reaction 



College students will elect a course in the history of edu- 
cation with many different motives. They may like the 
teacher, they may tike history in any form, they may like 
the hours at which the class is scheduled, some person who 
had the course recommended it, or they have an idea they 
may teach for a while after graduating. A few know they 
are going into teaching as a vocation in life, and appre- 
ciate in a measure the increasing exactitudes of professional 
training. Thus, from the student standpoint, the aims are 
eclectic. The results with them will be that as human be- 
ings they have a wider view of life; as citizens, perhaps as 
members of school boards, they are more intelligent in 
school matters; and as teachers they make a start in their 
progressive equipment. The general course in the history of 
education is pursued by a group of students with varying 
but undifferentiated motives. 

Once I asked a group of college students to write a 
frank reaction on a sixty-hour course they had just com- 
pleted in the general history of education. One wrote as 
follows: "The history of education makes me feel that a 
number of what we call innovations today are a renaissance 
of something as ' old as the hills.' We hear a lot about 
pupil self-government, and we find it back in the seven- 
teenth century. The trade school also is not a modern 
tendency. 

" I also feel that maybe we are not giving our boys and 
girls a liberal education; maybe we are too utilitarian (I 
was very much inclined that way myself before I took this 
course) . 

" That when we wish to try something new, let's go back 
and see if it has not been tried before, study the circum- 
stances, the mistakes made, the results attained, and see 
whether we can't profit by the experience given us by the 
past. 

" I was also very much surprised to learn the close con- 
nection that there is between civilization and education. 

" I feel that we are laying too much stress on the think- 
ing side of training rather than on the volitional side: not 



The Teaching of Education 351 



doing in the sense of utility alone, but as a means of expres- 
sion." 

It is easy to see the parts of the course that particularly 
gripped him. Another wrote as follows: 

" The history of education makes me feel as follows about Another re- 
. 1 • action 

teachmg : 

(1) It shows the knowledge of method to be obtained 
from the experiences of others. 

(2) It makes me feel the importance of the teacher. 

(3) It shows a great field and encourages us to try to 
improve our own methods. 

(4) It shows us the great responsibility of the profession 
in connection with the nation, for the school teacher to a 
marked degree determines the destiny of a nation. 

(5) It shows the importance of free-thinking. (Illustra- 
tion omitted.) 

(6) It shows us the great importance of individuality 
along the line of teaching, for, as soon as we begin to 
adopt the methods of others exactly without examining 
them carefully, progress stops, and we are like the teachers 
of the Middle Ages. 

(7) It shows that every teacher should have a heartfelt 
interest in his pupil. 

(8) It makes us feel that discipline is unnecessary, if 
we utilize the right methods. 

(9) It tells us and makes us feel above everything else 
that a good education is worth as much as riches and that, 
since we are all brothers, we ought to try to teach every- 
body." 

An analysis of these two answers would show a combina- 
tion of the cultural and practical values and, by implica- 
tion at least, since they were able to say these things, a 
disciplinary value. 

Should the history of education be a required or an elec- History of 
tive course in the college curriculum? In a school of should be 
education offering a bachelor's degree, it might well be an elective 
required, for both cultural and professional reasons, but 
in the usual department of education in a college it will 



352 



College Teaching 



A forty-five- 
hour course 



First term 
senior year 



be offered as an elective course. Its cultural and dis- 
ciplinary values are not such as to make its pursuit a re- 
quisite for a liberal education, and its practical value for 
prospective teachers, as it has been commonly taught, is 
not such as to warrant its prescription. Besides, the pros- 
pective teacher is animated by the vocational motive and 
will elect the history of education anyway, unless there 
are more practical courses to be had. Students in all the 
college courses should have the privilege of electing the 
history of education in view of their future citizenship. 

A three-hour-per-week elective course for a half year, 
about forty-five classroom hours, will meet the needs of the 
average undergraduate in this subject. This amount of 
time is adequate for a bird's eye view of the general field, 
affording a unit of accomplishment in itself preparing the 
way for more specialized study later, though it is only about 
half the time requisite for presenting the details of the 
subject. 

In my judgment the study of the history of education 
would best fall between principles and methods. The study 
of the principles of education should come first, as it is 
closely related to preceding work in the natural and mental 
sciences, especially biology, physiology, sociology, and psy- 
chology; it also gives a point of view from which to continue 
the study of education, some standard of judgment. The 
study of educational methods, such as general method in 
teaching, special method for different subjects, the tech- 
nique of instruction, class management, organization and 
administration of schools, should come last in the course, 
because it will be soonest used. These practical matters 
should be fresh in the mind of any young college gradu- 
ate beginning to teach. The history of education is a 
good transition in study from the theory of the first princi- 
ples to the practice of school matters, affording a panorama 
of facts to be judged by principles and racial experiments 
in educational practice. This means that the choice time 
for the course in the history of education is the first semes- 
There is something to 



ter of the senior year in college. 



The Teaching of Education 353 

be said for making this course the introductory one in the 
study of education, connecting with preceding courses in 
history and being objective in character. There is also 
something to be said for giving only a practical course 
dealing with the history of educational problems to college 
undergraduates and reserving the general history of edu- 
cation as a complex social study for the graduate school. 
There is no unanimity of opinion or practice concerning 
the history of education.^ 

What should be the content of the one-semester general Texts and 
course? Three modern available texts are Monroe, A Brief 
Course in the History of Education (The Macmillan Com- 
pany) ; Graves, A Student's History of Education (The Mac- 
millan Company) ; and Duggan, A Student's Textbook in 
the History of Education (D. Appleton & Co.). Of these 
Monroe's book is the first (1907), and it has greatly in- 
fluenced every later text in the field. There is a general 
agreement in these three texts as to the content of such a 
course; viz., a general survey of education in the successive 
periods of history, including primitive, oriental, Greek, 
Roman, Early Christian and medieval, renaissance, reforma- 
tion, realism, Locke and the disciplinary tendency, Rous- 
seau, the psychologists, and the scientific, sociological, and 
eclectic tendencies. All are written from the standpoint 
of the conflict between the interests of society and the in- 
dividual. The pages of the three books number respec- 
tively 409, 453, and 397. Graves pays most attention to 
the development of American education. Duggan omits 
the treatment of primitive and oriental education (except 
Jewish), "which did not contribute directly to Western 
culture and education." All are illustrated. All have 
good summaries, which Graves and Duggan, following 
S. C. Parker, who derived the suggestion from Herbart, 
place at the beginning of the chapter. All have biblio- 
graphical references, and Duggan adds lists of questions 
also. Perhaps in order of ease for students the books 

1 Cf. Thomas M. Balliet, " Normal School Curricula," School and So- 
ciety, Vol. IV, page 340. 



354 College Teaching 

would be Duggan, Graves, and Monroe, though teachers 
would not all agree in this. Users of Monroe have a valu- 
able aid in his epoch-making Textbook in the History of 
Education (The Macmillan Company), 772 pages, 1905, 
and users of Graves likewise have his three volumes as 
supplementary material (The Macmillan Company). 

The same general ground is covered by P. J. McCormick, 
History of Education (The Catholic Educational Press), 
1915, 401 pages, with especial attention given to the Middle 
Ages and the religious organizations of the seventeenth 
century. This work contains references and summaries 
also. 

Duggan is right in omitting the treatment of primitive 
and oriental education on the principle of strict historical 
continuity, but for purposes of comparison the chapters 
on primitive and oriental education in the other texts serve 
a useful purpose, 
classics^" ^ -^ more intensive elective course in the history of edu- 
cation intended especially for those expecting to teach 
might well be offered in a college with sufficient instruc- 
tors. These courses might be in educational classics, the 
history of modern elementary education, or the history 
of the high school. Texts are now available in these 
fields. Monroe's Source Book for the History of Educa- 
tion (The Macmillan Company), 1901, is a most useful 
book in studying the ancient educational classics, in which, 
however, the Anacharsis of Lucian does not appear, though 
it can be found in the Report of the United States Com- 
missioner of Education, 1897-1898, Vol. I, pages 571-589. 
The renaissance classics may be studied in the works of 
Woodward and Laurie. The realists may be studied in the 
various editions of Comenius, Locke, Spencer, and Hux- 
ley. Likewise the modern naturalistic movement may be 
followed in the writings of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, 
and Froebel. These four courses are available in edu- 
cational classics: the ancient, the renaissance or humanistic, 
the realistic and the naturalistic. 

The History of Modern Elementary Education (Ginn and 



The Teaching of Education 



355 



Co.) by S. C. Parker and The High School (The Macmillan 
Company) by F. W. Smith may be profitably used as texts 
in the courses on these topics. Parker's has but little on 
the organization of the elementary school, is weak on the 
philosophical side of the theorists treated, has nothing on 
Montessori, draws no lessons from history, is very brief 
on the present tendencies, and is somewhat heavy, prosaic, 
and unimaginative in style; but it is painstaking, covers 
all the main points well and has uncovered some valuable 
new material, and on the whole is the best history in 
English on its problem. Dr. Smith's book is really a his- 
tory of education written around the origin and tendencies 
of the high school as central. It is a scholarly work, 
based on access to original Latin and other sources, though 
diffuse. 

An elective course in the history of American education 
is highly desirable. Chancellor E. E. Brown's scholarly 
book on The Making of Our Middle Schools, or E. G. 
Dexter's encyclopedic book on History of Education in the 
United States, may profitably serve as texts. This course 
should show the European influences on American schools, 
the development of the American system, and the role of 
education in a democratic society. There is great oppor- 
tunity for research in this field. 

There is room for yet another course for college under- 
graduates expecting to teach, — a history of educational 
problems. The idea is to trace the intimate history of a 
dozen or more of the present most urgent educational 
questions, with a view to understanding them better and 
solving them more wisely, thus enabling the study of the 
history of education to function more in the practice of 
teachers. Such a text has not yet been written. The point 
of view is expressed by Professor Joseph K. Hart as fol- 
lows : " The large problem of education is the making of 
new educational history. The real reason for studying the 
history of education is that one may learn how to become 
a maker of history. For this purpose, history must awaken 
the mind of the student to the problems, forces, and condi- 



History of 
elementary 
and high 
schools 



American 
education 



History of 

educational 

problems 



356 College Teaching 

tions of the present; and its outlook must be toward the 

future." 1 

Methods of What should be the method of teachinar the history of 

tfGRCxiins 

education in college? One of the texts will be used as a 

basis for assignments and study. Not less than two hours 
of preparation on each assignment will be expected. The 
general account in the text will be supplemented by the 
reading of source and parallel material, concerning which 
very definite directions will have to be given by the teacher. 
Each student will keep a notebook as one of the require- 
ments of the course, which is examined by the instructor at 
the end. A profitable way to make a notebook is for each 
student to select a different modern problem and trace its 
origin and growth as he goes through the general history of 
education and its source material. In this way each student 
becomes a crude historian of a problem. The examination 
will test judgment and reason as well as memory. In the 
classroom the instructor will at times question the class, 
will at times be questioned by the class, will lecture on 
supplementary material, will use some half-dozen stereop- 
ticon lectures in close conjunction with the text, will have 
debates between chosen students, seeking variety in method 
without loss of unity in result. Some questions for debate 
might be, the superiority of the Athenian to the modern 
school product, the necessity of Latin and Greek for a 
liberal education, religious instruction in the public schools, 
formal discipline, whether the aim of education is cultural 
or vocational, whether private philanthropy is a benefit to 
public education, etc. It is very important in teaching so 
remote a subject as the history of education that the teacher 
have imagination, be constantly pointing modern parallels, 
communicate the sense that the past has made a difference 
in the present, and be himself kindled and quickened by 
man's aspirations for self -improvement. Unless our sub- 
ject first inspires us, it cannot inspire our pupils. Who- 
ever teaches the history of education because he has to 

^ " Can a College Department of Education Become Scientific? " The 
Scientific Monthly, Vol. 3, No. 4, page 381. 



results 



The Teaching of Education 357 

instead of because he wants to must expect thin results. 

In addition to the formal indication of the results of the Testing 
course in the examination paper, teachers can test their 
results by asking for frank unsigned statements as to what 
the course has meant to each student, by securing suggestions 
from the class for the future conduct of the course, by noting 
whether education as a means of social evolution has been 
appreciated, by observing whether the attitude of individual 
students toward education as a life-work or as a human en- 
terprise deserving adequate support from all intelligent 
citizens has developed. As future citizens, has the motive 
to improve schools been awakened? Particularly do 
more men want to teach, despite small pay and slight 
male companionship? The history of education does not 
really grip the class until its members want to rise up and 
do something by educational means to help set the world 
right. 

The limits of this paper exclude the treatment of the 
subject in the professional training of teachers in normal 
schools, high schools, and graduate schools, as well as in 
extension courses for teachers or in their private reading. 

Herman H. Horne 

New York University. 

Bibliography 

BuissoN, F. Dictionnaire de la Pedagogie, Histoire de I'Education. 
BuRNHAM, W. H. Education as a University Subject. Educational 

Review, Vol. 26, pages 236-245. 
BuRNHAM and Suzzalo, The History of Education as a Professional 

Subject. Teachers College, New York, 1908. 
Cook, H. M. History of the History of Education as a Professional 

Study in the United States. Unpublished thesis. 
Hinsdale, B. A. The Study of Education in American Colleges and 

Universities. Educational Review, Vol. 19, pages 105-120. 
Horne, H. H. A New Method in the History of Education. The 

School Review Monographs, No. 3, Chicago, 1913; pages 31-35. 

Discussion of same in School Review, May, 1913. 
KiEHLE, D. L. The History of Education: What It Stands For. 

School Review, Vol. 9, pages 310-315. 
Monroe, P., and Others. History of Education; in Monroe's Cyclo- 
pedia of Education, Vol. 3, New York, 1912. 



358 College Teaching 

Monroe, P. Opportunity and Need for Research Work in the His- 
tory of Education, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 17, pages 54-62. 

Moore, E. C. The History of Education. School Review, Vol. XI, 
pages 350-360. 

Norton, A. O. Scope and Aims of the History of Education, Edu- 
cational Review, Vol. 27. 

Payne, W. H. Practical Value of the History of Education. Pro- 
ceedings National Education Association, 1889, pages 218-223. 

Rein, W. Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik. Historische 
Pddagogik. 

RoBBiNS, C. L. History of Education in State Normal Schools, Ped- 
agogical Seminary, Vol, 22, No, 3, pages 377-390. 

Ross, D, Education as a University Subject: Its History, Present 
Position, and Prospects. Glasgow, 1883. 

Sutton, W. L., and Bolton, F. E. The Relation of the Department 
of Education to other Departments in Colleges and Universities. 
Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. 19, Nos. 2-3. 

Williams, S. G. Value of the History of Education to Teachers. 
Proceedings National Education Association, 1889, pages 223-231. 

Wilson, G. M. Titles of College Courses in Education. Educational 
Monographsy No. 8, 1919, pages 12-30. 



The Teaching of Education 359 

B. Teaching Educational Theory in College 
AND University Departments of Education 

COURSES in education in a college or university de- introduc- 
partment may be roughly classified into {a) the theo- 
retical phases of education, (6) the historical phases, and 
(c) the applied phases. Under the historical phases may 
properly be included courses in the general history of 
education as well as those in the history of education in 
special countries. The applied courses may include gen- 
eral and special method, organization, administration, ob- 
servation, and practice. Educational theory is discussed 
below. 

A couple of decades ago the terms " philosophy of edu- 
cation," " science of education," and " general pedagogy," 
or just " pedagogy," were most generally employed. At 
that time most of the work in education was given in 
the departments of philosophy or psychology. Gradually 
departments of education came to have an independent 
status. Among the earliest were those at Michigan, under . 
Dr. Joseph Payne, and the one at Iowa, under Dr. Stephen 
Fellows. Previous to the vigorous development of depart- 
ments of education, the departments of psychology and 
philosophy gave no special attention to the educational 
bearings of psychology. But as soon as departments of 
education began to introduce courses in educational psy- 
chology and child study, the occupants of the departments 
of psychology rubbed their eyes, became aware of unutil- 
ized opportunities, and then began to assert claims. 

Ordinarily the courses in educational theory are given in gj^^® ^^qj^^j 
the junior year of college. In a few places, elementary or theory in 
introductory courses are open to freshmen. There is a ri®„5"J^ 
distinct advantage in giving courses to freshmen, if they can 
be made sufficiently concrete and grow out of their pre- 
vious experiences. The college of education in the Uni- 
versity of Washington, for example, is so organized that 
the student shall begin to think of the profession of teach- 



360 College Teaching 

ing immediately upon entering the University. While the 
main work in education courses does not come until the 
junior and senior years, the student receives guidance and 
counsel from the outset in selecting his courses and is helped 
to get in touch with the professional atmosphere that should 
surround a teacher's college. The foundation work in zo- 
ology and psychology is given as far as possible with the 
teaching profession in mind. It is planned to give some 
work of a general nature in education during the first two 
years, that will serve as vocational guidance and will assist 
the student to arrange his work most advantageously and to 
accomplish it most economically. By the more prolonged 
individual acquaintance between students and faculty of the 
college of education, it is hoped that the students will receive 
greater professional help and the faculty will be better 
able to judge of the teaching abilities of the students. The 
work in education and allied courses has been so extended 
that adequate professional preparation may be secured. 
The courses in zoology, psychology, and sociology are all 
directly contributory to a knowledge of, and to an inter- 
pretation of, the courses in education. 

The great majority of undergraduate students taking edu- 
cation are preparing to teach, and more and more they plan 
to teach in the high schools. However, not a few students 
of medicine, law, engineering, and other technical subjects 
take courses in education as a means of general information. 
It would be exceedingly desirable if all citizens would 
take general courses in education, and would come to 
understand the meaning of educational processes and past 
and present practices in educational procedure. If all 
parents and members of school boards could have a few 
modern courses in educational theory and organization, 
the work of school teachers would be very much simpli- 
fied. 

So far as is known, no college or university makes edu- 
cation an absolute requirement such as is made with respect 
to foreign languages, science, mathematics, or philosophy. 
In a large majority of states, some work in education is re- 



Tlie Teaching of Education 361 



quired for teacher's certification. The number of states 
making such requirements is rapidly increasing. Before 
long it will be impossible for persons to engage in teach- 
ing without either attending a normal school or taking pro- 
fessional courses in education in college. 

The theory of education as considered in this chapter will The scope 

include all those courses which have for their purpose the °^*^°"6S« 
.,.„,. iT f courses m 

consideration oi the lundamental meaning of education and educational 
the underlying laws or principles governing the education *^®°^y 
process. Educational theory is given in different institu- 
tions under a great variety of titles. The following are the 
most frequently offered : Principles of education, philoso- 
phy of education, theory of education, educational psychol- 
ogy, genetic psychology, experimental education, child study, 
adolescence, moral education, educational sociology, social 
aspects of education. Educational theory may be divided 
into courses which are elementary in character, and those 
which are advanced. The purpose of the former is to pre- 
sent to beginning students the fundamentals of reasonably 
well-tested principles and laws, and to indicate to them 
something of the various phases of education. 

The purpose of advanced courses, especially in experi- 
mental education, is to reach out into new fields and by 
study and experiment to test and develop new theories. 
The experimental phases of education seek to blaze new 
trails and to discover new methods of reaching more eco- 
nomically and efficiently the goals which education seeks. 
Both of these phases should be given in a college course 
in the theory of education. Enough of the experimental 
work should be given in the elementary course to enable 
students to distinguish between mere opinion and well- 
established theory, to understand how the theories have been 
derived, to know how to subject them to crucial tests, and 
to give them some knowledge of methods of experimenta- 
tion. 

Education as a science is constantly confronted by the 
questions, "What are the ends and aims of education?" 
and " What are the means of accomplishing these ends? " 



362 College' Teaching 

These mean that there must be a study of the ends of edu- 
cation as necessitated by the demands of society and the 
needs of the individual himself. In determining the ends of 
education, adult society, of which the individual is to be a 
part, must be surveyed, as must also the social group of 
which the child is now an integral part. In addition to 
these the laws of growth and development must be studied, 
to understand what will contribute effectively to the child's 
normal unfoldment. 

The interpretation of the ends and means of education 
will determine the field of the theory of education. This 
interpretation has been so splendidly stated by Dewey that 
I venture to quote him at length. He says [My Pedagogic 
Creed) : " I believe that this educational process has two 
sides — one psychological and one sociological: and that 
neither can be subordinated to the other or neglected with- 
out evil results following. Of these two sides, the psycho- 
logical is the basis. The child's own instincts and powers 
furnish the material and give the starting point for all edu- 
cation. Save as the efforts of the educator connect with 
some activity which the child is carrying on of his own in- 
itiative independent of the educator, education becomes 
reduced to a pressure from without. It may, indeed, give 
certain external results, but cannot truly be called edu- 
cative. Without insight into the psychological structure 
and activities of the individual, the educative processes will, 
therefore, be haphazard and arbitrary. If it chances to 
coincide with the child's activity, it will get a leverage; if 
it does not, it will result in friction, or disintegration, or 
arrest of the child nature. 

" I believe that knowledge of social conditions, of the 
present state of civilization, is necessary in order properly 
to interpret the child's powers. The child has his own 
instincts and tendencies, but we do not know what these 
mean until we can translate them into their social equiva- 
lents. We must be able to carry them back into a social 
past and see them as the inheritance of previous race ac- 
tivities. We must be able to project them into the future 



The Teaching of Education 363 

to see what their outcome and end will be. In the illustra- 
tion just used, it is the ability to see in the child's babblings 
the promise and potency of the future social intercourse and 
conversation which enables one to deal in the proper way 
with that instinct. 

" 1 believe that the psychological and social sides are 
organically related, and that education cannot be regarded 
as a compromise between the two, or a superimposition 
of one upon the other. We are told that the psychological 
definition of education is barren and formal — that it gives 
us only the idea of a development of all the mental powers 
without giving us an idea of the use to which these powers 
are put. On the other hand, it is urged that the social 
definition of education, as getting adjusted to civilization, 
makes a forced and external process, and results in sub- 
ordinating the freedom of the individual to a preconceived 
social and political status. 

" I believe each of these objections is true when urged 
against one side isolated from the other. In order to know 
what a power really is we must know what its end, use, 
or function is; and this we cannot know, save as we con- 
ceive of the individual as active in social relationships. 
But, on the other hand, the only possible adjustment which 
we can give to the child under existing conditions is that 
which arises through putting him in complete possession 
of all of his powers. With the advent of democracy and 
modern industrial conditions, it is impossible to foretell 
definitely just what civilization will be twenty years from 
now. Hence it is impossible to prepare the child for any 
precise set of conditions. To prepare him for the future 
life means to give him command of himself; it means so to 
train him that he will have the full and ready use of all 
his capacities, that his eye and ear and hand may be tools 
ready to command, that his judgment may be capable of 
grasping the conditions under which it has to work, and the 
executive forces be trained to act economically and effi- 
ciently. It is impossible to reach this sort of adjustment 
save as constant regard is had to the individual's own 



364 College Teaching 

powers, tastes, and interests; say, that is, as education is 
continually converted into psychological terms. 

" In sum, I believe that the individual who is to be edu- 
cated is a social individual, and that society is an organic 
union of individuals. If we eliminate the social factor 
from the child, we are left only with an abstraction; if we 
eliminate the individual factor from society, we are left 
only with an inert and lifeless mass. Education, there- 
fore, must begin with a psychological insight into the child's 
capacities, interests, and habits. It must be controlled at 
every point by reference to these same considerations. 
These powers, interests, and habits must be continually 
interpreted — we must know what they mean. They must 
be translated into terms of their social equivalents — into 
terms of what they are capable of in the way of social 
service." 

Therefore, the fundamental course in educational theory 
must include (1) the biological principles of education, 
(2) the psychological principles of education, and (3) the 
social principles of education. This does not mean that 
the sequence must be as enumerated here. In some places 
that is the sequence followed, in some other places the 
social principles are studied first. As a matter of fact, all 
three phases must be studied together to a considerable 
extent. Probably a purely logical arrangement would 
place the social phases first, but it is almost futile to at- 
tempt to present them effectively until something of the 
biological and psychological laws are first established. 
Again, the student in beginning the formal study of edu- 
cation is already in possession of a vast body of facts 
concerning society and the relation of education to it, so 
that reference can be advantageously made in connection 
with the study of biological and psychological laws of 
education. Then the social principles and applications can 
be more thoroughly and scientifically considered in the 
light of the other phases. 

In administering a college course in the theory of edu- 
cation the great desideratum is to try to formulate a body 



The Teaching of Education 365 



of knowledge which will give the undergraduate students 
an idea of the meaning of education and its problems and 
processes. In so far as possible it is desirable to present 
material which in a certain sense will be practical. Inas- 
much as the majority of undergraduates who study educa- 
tion in a college department intend to go into the practical 
work of teaching, it is important to fortify them, as well as 
possible in the brief time which they devote to the subject, 
concerning the best means of securing definite results in 
education. The majority are not so much interested in the 
abstract science or the philosophy of education as they are 
in its practical problems. All courses in education should 
seek to deal with fundamental principles and not dole out 
dogmatic statements of practical means and devices, but at 
the same time no principles should be considered with which 
the student cannot see some relation to the educative proc- 
esses. They are not primarily concerned with the place of 
education among the sciences or with ontological and teleo- 
logical meanings of education or of its laws. 

The course in elementary educational theory should be Academic 
on a par with a course in principles of physics, one in oftfrin-'' 
principles of biology, principles of psychology, principles troductory 
of political science, etc. A course in the principles of any ''°''"® 
of these subjects attempts to set forth the main problems 
with which the science deals. Elementary courses attempt 
to select those principles which have frequent application 
in everyday life. The course in the principles of physics 
deals with the elementary notions of matter, motion, and 
force, and everyday illustrations and problems are sought. 
It would seem that in a similar manner the college course 
in the foundations of education should seek elementary 
principles which will enable the student to accomplish the 
purpose of education; namely, to. produce modifications in 
individuals and in society in harmony with the ideals and 
ends of education. Education is a process of adjusting in- 
dividuals to their environment, natural and accidental, and 
the environment which is created through ideals held by 
society and by individuals themselves. All education has 



366 College Teaching 

to do with the development of the individual in accordance 
with his potentialities and the ideals of education which 
are set up. It is a practical science, an applied science, 
in the same way that engineering is an applied science. 
Engineering does not deal with ultimate theories of matter, 
force, and motion, except as they are important in con- 
sidering practical ends to be secured through the appli- 
cation of forces. An elementary course in educational 
theory should seek to include the foundations rather than 
to encompass all knowledge about education. It is rather 
an introduction than an encyclopedia. 

Although a complete and logical treatise on the theory 
of education might include a consideration of the course of 
study and the methods of instruction, the making of a course 
of study, the problem of the arrangement of the course of 
study, the various studies as instruments of experience, the 
organization and administration of education, etc., it is 
questionable from a practical point of view whether they 
should be given consideration in the undergraduate course. 
Mere passing notice would at any rate seem sufficient. Each 
topic of the scope of the foregoing is sufficient to form a 
course in itself, and the introductory course should do 
no more than define their relation to the general prob- 
lem. In the principles of psychology the fields of ab- 
normal psychology, comparative psychology, child psy- 
chology, adolescent psychology, etc., are defined and drawn 
upon for illustration, yet no separate chapters are devoted 
to them. In departments of political economy there are 
usually elemental courses designed as an introduction to 
the leading principles of economic science, but there are 
special courses in currency and banking, public finance, 
taxation, transportation, distribution of wealth, etc. 

Similarly in the college course in the theory of education, 
the work should be concentrated upon fundamentals de- 
signed to introduce the student to the many special prob- 
lems. For example, the course of study and the organi- 
zation and administration of education should be regarded 
as accessory rather than as fundamental. The laws under- 



The Teaching of Education 367 



lying processes of development and modification are what 
should occupy the attention of the student in this elemental 
survey. A study of the special means and agencies of edu- 
cation and forms of social organization should be given 
in other courses by special names. Secondary education, 
the kindergarten, administration and supervision, methods 
in special subjects, etc., each deserve attention as a distinct 
and separate course. 

As shown by two surveys made by the writer, one in 
1909 and the last in 1916, the theory of education is most 
frequently given under the terms "Principles of Educa- 
tion," " Educational Psychology," " Social Phases of Edu- 
cation," "Educational Sociology," and "Child Study." 
Therefore, a brief special discussion of each of these fields 
may be desirable. 

Under various names courses in principles of education Principles 
are given in most departments of education. The term l^o^"""^' 
" Principles of Education " does not appear in all, being 
replaced by "Principles of Teaching," "Philosophy of 
Education," "Fundamentals of Teaching," "Introduction 
to Education," " Science of Education," " Principles of 
Method," " Theory of Education," etc. In some institutions 
the terms " Educational Psychology " and " Child Study " 
stand for essentially the same thing as the foregoing. In 
most institutions it is recognized that the teacher must 
understand (a) the meaning and aim of education, (6) the 
nature of the child considered biologically, psychologically, 
socially, and morally, (c) the foundations of society and 
the industries, (J) how to adapt and utilize educational 
means so as to develop the potentialities of the child's 
nature and cause him to achieve the aims of education. 

In this section there should be an attempt first to enlarge Biological 
the notion of education, aiming to have it regarded as P'^"^"^^®^ 
practically coincident with life and experience. Of course 
there is the ideal side to which individuals will strive, but 
the student should be impressed with the fact that every 
experience leaves its ineffaceable effect upon all organisms. 
In order to convey this idea we may begin with a discussion 



368 College Teaching 

of the effects of experience upon simple animal and plant 
life and the general modifications produced in the adjust- 
ment of such life to surroundings. Some familiar, non- 
technical facts in the evolution of plant and animal life 
may be considered in their relation to the question of 
adaptation and adjustment. Due notice should be taken 
of the facts of adjustment as manifested in such illustra- 
tions as the change of the eyes of cave animals, gradual 
modifications of plant and animal life, the change of 
animals from sea life to land life, some of the retrogres- 
sions, etc. A general study of the gradual evolution of 
sense organs and the nervous system should be made, be- 
cause these illustrate in an excellent way the gradual modi- 
fications produced by experience in the race. After this 
general survey, the subject of innate tendencies may be 
considered through the discussion of such chapters as Drum- 
mond's " The ascent of the body," " The scaffolding left 
in the body," " The arrest of the body," " The dawn of 
mind," " The evolution of language," etc. These discus- 
sions naturally lead to a consideration of the lengthening 
period of human infancy, and the importance of infancy 
in education. This in turn leads to a brief consideration 
of the periods of childhood, adolescence, and maturity, 
largely from a biological point of view. These should be 
followed by a discussion of such topics as instinct, heredity, 
from fundamental to accessory, the brain as an organ of 
mind, some of the facts of psycho-physical correlation, and 
the reciprocal influence of mind and body upon each other. 
Before leaving this general field, thorough and designedly 
practical discussions of the importance of physical devel- 
opment and culture for education in general and for mental 
development, fatigue, habit, physical and mental hygiene, 
and play should be considered. 
Educational J^e next section should include what some authors term 
educational psychology, and others call the psychological 
aspects of education. In this section the first topic natur- 
ally considered is that of memory. It grows out of the 
biological discussion of instinct, heredity, etc. Included 



psychology 



The Teaching of Education 369 

in the subject of memory is that of association. Follow- 
ing this come imagination, imitation, training of the senses, 
apperception, formal discipline, feeling, volition, motor 
training, induction, etc. Periods of mental development 
and the specific topics of childhood and adolescence should 
receive definite consideration, though more exhaustive treat- 
ment should be reserved for a distinct course in child study. 
The genetic point of view should be emphasized throughout. 

While the number of students registered for educational 
psychology is not large, .the numbers that are in reality pur- 
suing this branch are increasing. Fortunately, the 
" psychology for teachers " and " applied psychology " of 
a score of years ago are giving way to a kind of educational 
psychology that is much more vital. Men like Judd and 
Thorndike are formulating a psychology of the diff'erent 
branches of study and of the teaching processes involved 
that will enable the teacher to see the connection between 
the psychological laws and the processes to be learned. 
This sort of work has been made possible by the work of 
Hall and his followers in studying the child and the 
adolescent from the standpoint of growth periods and the 
types of activity suited to each period. Educational 
psychology is therefore represented richly in principles of 
education, genetic psychology, mental development, child 
study, and adolescence, as well as in the courses labeled 
" Educational Psychology." 

Twelve vears asro courses on social phases of education Social as- 

111 rr 1 1 1 . T * 1 P®<^^S Of edu- 

were probably not onered anywhere, as they are not listed cation 
in my tabulation at that time. Today they appear in some 
form or other in almost every department of education. 
In Columbia the work is given as " Educational Sociology." 
The departments of sociology also emphasize various phases 
of educational problems. Courses on vocational education, 
industrial education, and vocational guidance all emphasize 
the same idea. The introduction of these courses means 
that the merely disciplinary aim of education is fast giving 
way to that of adjustment and utility. Educational means 
are (1) to enable the child to live happily and to develop 



370 College Teaching 

normally, and (2) to furnish a kind of training which will 
enable him to serve society to the utmost advantage. In 
the courses on educational sociology, there should be an 
attempt to help the student feel that the highest aim of 
education is not individualistic, but social. The purpose 
is to fit the individual for cooperation, developing agencies 
of life that shall be mutually advantageous, for democratic 
society seeks the highest welfare of all its members through 
the cooperation and contribution of each of its members. 
It teaches us not only the rights and privileges of society 
but also its duties and obligations. 

The best individual development also comes only through 
the social interaction of minds, and consequently various 
phases of social psychology must receive consideration. 
Various forms of cooperative effort which enlist the interest 
of children at various stages of development should be 
studied. Inasmuch as educators should link school and 
home, typical illustrations of the manifold means of relat- 
ing the school and society should be studied, so that the 
teacher will not be without knowledge of their possibilities. 
The child Throughout the country there is evidence that the 

curricula in education departments have for their central 
object a scientific knowledge of the child and the better 
adaptation of educational means to the development of 
the potentialities possessed by the child. This idea is evi- 
denced by the fact that the foundation courses are psy- 
chology, principles of education, child study, educational 
psychology. The fact that the history of education is still 
so largely given as a relatively beginning course shows that 
the new idea has not gained complete acceptance. Many 
specialized courses in child study are offered, among them 
being such courses as the " Psychology of Childhood," 
" Childhood and Adolescence," " Psychopathic, Retarded, 
and Mentally Deficient Children," " Genetic Psychology," 
" The Anthropological Study of Children," " The Physical 
Nature of the Child." At the University of Pittsburgh a 
school of childhood has been established which will com- 
bine in theory and practice the best ideals in the kinder- 



the center 



The Teaching of Education 371 



garten, the modern primary school, and the Montessori 
system. Clark University has had for some years its 
Children's Institute, which attempts to assemble the best 
literature on childhood and the best materials of instruction 
in childhood. Many of the courses in educational tests and 
measurements center around the study of the child. 

Naturally, methods of teaching the subject vary exceed- 
ingly in the different institutions. Each instructor to a 
large extent follows his own individual inclinations. Prob- 
ably the great majority pursue the lecture method to a con- 
siderable extent. The lectures are generally accompanied 
by readings either from some textbook or from collateral 
readings. 

The writer has personally pursued the combination 
method. For years before his own book on Principles of 
Education was completed the subject was presented in 
lecture form, and accompanied by library readings. Even 
now, with a textbook at hand, each new topic is outlined 
in an informal development lecture. Definite assignments 
are made from the text, and from collateral readings, which 
include additional texts, periodical literature, and selected 
chapters from various educational books. After students 
have had an opportunity to read copiously and to think 
out special problems, an attempt is made to discuss the 
entire topic orally. That is possible and very fruitful in 
classes of the right size, — not over thirty. In large classes 
numbering from sixty to one hundred or more, the oral 
discussion is not profitable unless the instructor is very 
skilled in conducting the discussion. The questions should 
never be for the purpose of merely securing answers per- 
fectly obvious to all in the class. The questions should seek 
to unfold new phases of the subject. Difficult points should 
be considered, new contributions should be made by the 
students and the instructor, and all should feel that it is 
really an enlargement, a broadening, and a deepening of 
ideas gained through the lectures and the assigned readings. 
Very frequently individual students should be assigned 
special topics for report. A good deal of care must be 



Methods of 
teaching 
the subject 



372 College Teaching 

exercised in this connection, for unless the material is a 
real contribution and is presented effectively, the rest of the 
students become wearied. If possible, the instructor should 
know exactly what points are to be brought out, and the 
approximate amount of time to be occupied. 

Throughout, an attempt is made to make the work as con- 
crete as possible, and to show its relation to matters per- 
taining to the schoolroom, the home, and the everyday 
conduct of the students themselves. Each topic is treated 
with considerable thoroughness and detail. No endeavor is 
made to secure an absolutely systematic and ultra-logical 
system. The charge of being logically unsystematic and 
incomplete would not be resented. There is no desire for 
a system. As in the elementary stages of any subject, the 
first requisite is a body of fundamental facts. There is 
time enough later to evolve an all-inclusive and all-ex- 
clusive system. I am not aware that even the " doctors " 
have yet fully settled this question. The psychological 
order is the one sought. What is intelligible, full of living 
interest, and of largest probable importance in the life and 
work of the student teacher are the criteria applied in the 
selection of materials. The student verdict is given much 
weight in deciding. 

A rather successful plan of providing an adequate number 
of duplicates of books much used has been developed by 
the writer at the State University of Iowa and at the Uni- 
versity of Washington. In all courses in which no single 
suitable text is found the students are asked to contribute 
a small sum, from twenty-five to fifty cents, for the purpose 
of purchasing duplicates. These books are placed on the 
reserve shelf, and this makes it possible for large classes 
to be accommodated with a relatively small number of 
books. Ordinarily there should be one book for every four 
or five students, if all are expected to read the same as- 
signment. If options are allowed, the proportion of books 
may be reduced. The books become the property of the 
institution, and a fine library of duplicate sets rapidly ac- 
cumulates. In about five years about fifteen hundred vol- 



The Teaching of Education 373 

umes have been secured in this way at the University of 
Washington. Valuable pamphlet material and reprints of 
important articles also are collected and kept in filing boxes. 

Frederick E. Bolton 

University of Washington 

Bibliography 
1. articles on teaching of educational theory 

Bolton, Frederick E. The Relation of the Department of Education 
to Other Departments in Colleges and Universities. Journal of 
Pedagogy, Vol. XIX, Nos. 2, 3, December, 1906, March, 1907. 

Curricula in University Departments of Education. School and 

Society, December 11, 1915, pages 829-841. 

JuDD, Charles H. The Department of Education in American Uni- 
versities. School Review, Vol. 17, November, 1909. 

HoLLiSTER, Horace A. Courses in Education Best Adapted to the 
Needs of High School Teachers and High School Principals. 
School and Home Education, April, 1917. 

2. BOOKS ON THE GENERAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND 
PSYCHOLOGICAL PHASES OF EDUCATION 

Bagley, Willtam C. The Educative Process. The Macmillan Com- 
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— — Educational Values. The Macmillan Company, 1911. 267 

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Bolton, Frederick E. Principles of Education. Charles Scribner's 

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Dewey, John. Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the 

Philosophy of Education. Macmillan, 1916. 434 pages. 
Freeman, Frank N. Experimental Education. Houghton Mifflin 

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Psychology of the Common Branches. Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany, 1916. 275 pages. 

How Children Learn. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917. 322 

pages. 



374 College Teaching 

Gordon, Kate. Educational Psychology. Henry Holt & Co., 1917. 

294 pages. 
Groszmann, M. p. E, Some Fundamental Verities in Education. 

Richard Badger, 1916. 118 pages. 
GuYER, Michael. Being Weil-Born. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1916. 

374 pages. 
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volumes, 710 pages and 714 pages. 
Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline and Educational Values. John Lane 

& Co., 1911. 208 pages. 
Henderson, Charles H. Education and the Larger Life. Houghton 

Mifflin Company, 1912. 386 pages. 

What Is It to be Educated? Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914. 

462 pages. 

Henderson, Ernest N. A Textbook on the Principles of Education. 

The Macmillan Company, 1910. 593 pages. 
Horne, Herman H. The Philosophy of Education. The Macmillan 

Company, 1904. 295 pages. 

The Psychological Principles of Education. The Macmillan 

Company, 1906. 435 pages. 

Klapper, Paul. Principles of Educational Practice. D. Appleton & 
Co., 1912. 485 pages. 

Moore, Ernest C. What Is Education? Ginn and Co., 1915. 357 
pages. 

O'Shea, M. Vincent. Dynamic Factors in Education. The Macmil- 
lan Company, 1906. 321 pages. 

Education as Adjustment. Longmans, Green & Co., 1903. 348 

pages. 

— — Linguistic Development and Education. The Macmillan Coin- 

pany, 1907. 347 pages. 
Pyle, William H. The Science of Human Nature. Silver, Burdett & 

Co., 1917. 229 pages. 

The Outlines of Educational Psychology. Warwick & York, 

1911. 276 pages. 

RuEDiGER, William C. Principles of Education. Houghton Mifflin 

Company, 1910. 305 pages. 
Spencer, Herbert. Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. D. 

Appleton & Co., 1900. 301 pages. 
Thorndike, Edward L. Principles of Teaching. A. G. Seller, 1906. 

293 pages. 

Education: A First Book. The Macmillan Company, 1912. 292 

pages. 

Individuality. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911. 56 pages. 

Educational Psychology. Teachers College, 1913. Vol. I. The 

Original Nature of Man. 327 pages. 



TJie Teaching of Education 375 

3. BOOKS ON THE SOCIAL PHASES OF EDUCATION 

Betts, George H. Social Principles of Education. Charles Scrib- 

ner's Sons, 1912. 313 pages. 
Cabot, Ella L. Volunteer Help to the Schools. Houghton Mifflin 

Company, 1914. 141 pages. 
Dewey, John. The School and Society. University of Chicago Press, 

1907. 129 pages. 

The Schools of Tomorrow. E. P. Button & Co., 1915. 316 

pages. 

Democracy and Education. The Macmillan Company, 1916. 

434 pages. 

Dewey, John, and Small, Albion W. My Educational Creed. E. 
L. Kellogg & Co., 1897. 36 pages. 

DuTTON, Samuel T. Social Phases of Education in the School and 
the Home. The Macmillan Company, 1900. 259 pages. 

Gillette, John M. Constructive Rural Sociology. Sturgis & Wal- 
ton, 1913. 301 pages. 

King, Irving. Education for Social Efficiency. D. Appleton & Co., 
1913. 371 pages. 

Social Aspects of Education. A Book of Sources and Original 

Discussions, with Annotated Bibliographies. The Macmillan 
Company, 1912. 

McDouGALL, William. An Introduction to Social Psychology. John 
W. Luce, 1914. 355 pages. 

O'Shea, M. Vincent. Social Development and Education. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Company, 1909. 561 pages. 

Scott, Colin A. Social Education. Ginn and Co., 1908. 300 pages. 

Smith, Walter R. An Introduction to Educational Sociology. 
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917. 412 pages. 

4. BOOKS ON CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 

Drummond, William B. An Introduction to Child Study. Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1907. 347 pages. 

Gesell, Beatrice C. and Arnold. The Normal Child and Primary 
Education. Ginn and Co., 1912. 342 pages. 

Groszmann, M. p. E. The Career of the Child. Richard Badger, 
1911. 335 pages. 

Hall, G. Stanley. Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene. 
D. Appleton & Co., 1907. 379 pages. 

Aspects of Child Life and Education. Ginn and Co., 1907. 326 

pages. 

Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, 

Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education. 
D. Appleton & Co., 1904. 2 vols., 589 and 784 pages. 



376 College Teaching 

King, Irving. The High School Age. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1914. 
288 pages. 

KiRKPATRiCK, Edwin A. Fundamentals of Child Study. The Mac- 
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Genetic Psychology: An Introduction to an objective and genetic 

view of intelligence. The Macmillan Company, 1909. 373 pages. 

Oppenheim, Nathan. The Development of the Child. The Macmil- 
lan Company, 1898, 296 pages. 

Sully, James. Studies of Childhood. D. Appleton & Co., 1910. 527 
pages. 

Swift, Edgar J. Youth and the Race. Charles Scribner's Sons, 
1912. 342 pages. 

Tanner, Amy E. The Child: His Thinking^ Feeling, and Doing. 
1904. 430 pages. 

Terman, Lewis M. The Hygiene of the School Child. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, 1914. 417 pages. 

Tracy, Frederick, and Stimpfl, James. The Psychology of Child- 
hood. D. C. Heath & Co., 1909. 231 pages. 

Tyler, John Mason. Growth and Education. Houghton Mifflin 
Company, 1907. 294 pages. 

Waddle, Charles W. Introduction to Child Psychology. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, 1918. 307 pages. 



PART FOUR 

The Languages and Literatures 

CHAPTER 

XVIII The Teaching of English Literature 

Caleb T. Winchester 

XIX The Teaching of English Composition 

Henry Seidel Canhy 

XX The Teaching of the Classics 

William K. Prentice 

XXI The Teaching of the Romance Languages 

William A. Nitze 

XXII The Teaching of German 

E. Prokosch 



XVIII 
THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH LITERATURE 

IT should be understood at the outset that this paper is Scope of 
concerned with the study of literature, not in the uni- English 
versity or graduate school, but in the college, by the under- literature 
graduate candidate for the bachelor's degree; and, further- ^^^ ®^® 
more, that the object of study is not the history, biography, 
bibliography, or criticism of literature, but the literature 
itself. Perhaps also the term " literature " may need defini- 
tion. As commonly — and correctly — used, the word 
" literature " denotes all writing which has sufficient emo- 
tional interest, whether primary or incidental, to give it 
permanence. As thus defined, literature would include, for 
example, history and much philosophical writing, and 
would exclude only writing of purely scientific or technical 
character. But in the following pages the word will be 
used in a narrower sense, as indicating those books that 
are read for their own sake, not solely or primarily for their 
intellectual content. This definition is elastic enough to 
comprise not only poetry, drama, and fiction, but the essay, 
oratory, and much political and satirical prose. It should 
be further understood that for the purpose of this paper, 
English literature may be considered to begin about the 
middle of the fourteenth century. Earlier and Anglo- 
Saxon writings are by no means without great literary 
value, and it may at once be granted that no college teacher 
of English literature is thoroughly equipped for his work 
who is ignorant of them; but they can be read appreciatively 
only after considerable study of the language, the method 
and motives of which are linguistic rather than literary. 

Perhaps it may be asked just here whether English litera- Aims gov- 
ture, as thus defined, need be studied in college at all. teaching of 
Until quite recently that question seems generally to have ^j^^^^^^^J^.^ 
been answered in the negative. Fifty years ago, few if any 
of our American colleges gave any study to texts of English 

379 ■ 



380 College Teaching 

classics. There were, indeed, in most colleges professors 
of rhetoric and belles-lettres, whose lectures upon the 
history and criticism of our literature were often of great 
value as an inspiration to literary study; but it was only 
in the decade from 1865 to 1875 that in most of our colleges 
the literature itself, with hesitating caution, began to be 
read and studied in the classroom. 
Can literary Nor was this hesitation without some reasons, at least 
be^devd[-^°" plausible. The chief object of college training, it was said, 
oped? is to discipline and strengthen the . intellect, to give the 

student that grasp and power of thought which he may 
apply to all the work of later life. The college should 
not be expected to pay much attention to the cultivation 
of the imagination and the emotions. These faculties, to 
which literature makes appeal, are not, it was said, under 
the control of the will, and you cannot cultivate or 
strengthen them by sheer resolve or strenuous exertion. 
The first condition of any real appreciation of literature, 
so ran the argument, is spontaneous enjoyment of it; and 
you cannot command a right feeling for literature or for 
anything else. But a normal development of the imagina- 
tion and the emotions does usually accompany the vigorous 
development of the intellect, so that the advancing student 
will be found to turn spontaneously to art and literature. 
And his appreciation of all the highest and deepest mean- 
ings in literature will be quickened because he brings to 
his reading a mind trained to accurate and vigorous think- 
ing. Moreover, all substantial advantages from the study 
of modern vernacular literature can be better obtained 
from the Greek and Latin classics. They afford the same 
richness of thought and charm of form as our modern writ- 
ing; but they demand for their appreciation that careful 
attention and study which modern literature too often dis- 
courages. The survivors of a former generation sometimes 
ask us today, with a touch of sarcasm, " Do you think 
the average New England college student of fifty to seventy- 
five years ago, when the Emersons and Longfellows and 
Lowells were young men, the days of the old North Ameri- 



The Teaching of Engl ish Literature 381 

can Revieiv and the new Atlantic Monthly, had any less ap- 
preciation and enjoyment of whatever is good in literature, 
or any less power to produce it, than the young fellows 
who are coming out of college today after more than a 
quarter century of literary instruction? " And they occa- 
sionally suggest that, at all events, it is difficult to find any 
evidences of the result of such instruction in the quality 
of the literature produced or demanded today. 

On the other hand, the study of English literature often 
fares little better with the advocates of the modern practical 
tendency in education. They have but scanty allowance 
for a study assumed to be of so little use in the actual 
work of life. An acquaintance with well-known English 
books, especially if they be modern books, is, they admit, 
a desirable accomplishment if it can be gained without too 
much cost, but not to be allowed the place of more valuable 
knowledge. A typical modern father, writing not long ago 
to a modern educator, after giving with equal positiveness 
the subjects that his boy must have and must not have 
included in his course of study, added by way of conces- 
sion, " The boy might, if he has time, take English litera- 
ture." 

Now in answer to this second class of objectors, it may be 
frankly admitted that the study of English literature is 
primarily, if not entirely, cultural. A boy may not make 
a better engineer or practical chemist for having studied 
in college the plays of Shakespeare or the prose of Ruskin. 
And to the older objectors, who urge that literary study 
can ever give that severe intellectual discipline afforded by 
the older, narrower college course, we reply that it is not 
merely the intellectual powers that need culture and dis- 
cipline. The ideal college training will surely not neglect 
the imagination and emotions, the faculties which so largely 
determine the conduct of life. And at no period in the 
educational process is the need of wide moral training 
so urgent as in those years when the young man is form- 
ing independent judgments and his tastes are taking their 
final set. The study of English literature finds its warrant 



Conflict of 
utilitarian 
and cultural 
standards 



Cultural 
and utili- 
tarian 
standards 
harmonized 



382 



College Teaching 



Appreciation 
the ultimate 
aim in the 
teaching of 
literature 



Apprecia- 
tive study 
of literary 
master- 
pieces in- 
volves vigor- 
ous mental 
exercise 



for a place in the college curriculum principally because, 
better than any other subject, it is fitted to cultivate both the 
emotional and the intellectual sides of our nature. For 
in all genuine literature those two elements, the intellectual 
and the emotional, are united; you cannot get either one 
fully without getting the other. In some forms of liter- 
ature, as in poetry, the emotional appeal is the main pur- 
pose of the writing; but even here no really profound 
or sublime emotion is possible without a solid basis of 
thought. 

This, then, let us understand, is the primary object of all 
college teaching in this department. It affords the student 
opportunity and incitement to read, during his four years, 
a considerable number of our best classics, representative 
of different periods and different forms of literature, and 
to read them with such intelligence and appreciation as to 
receive from them that discipline of thought and feeling 
which literature better than anything else is fitted to im- 
part. If the student would or could do this reading by 
himself, without formal requirement or assistance, there 
might be little need of undergraduate teaching of litera- 
ture; but every one who knows much of American college 
conditions knows that the average undergraduate has neither 
time, inclination, nor ability for such voluntary reading. 

Just here lies a difficulty peculiar to the college teacher 
in this department. All studies that appeal primarily to 
the intellect and call only for careful attention and vigor- 
ous thinking can be prescribed, and mastery of them rigidly 
enforced. Indeed, the ambitious student is often stimulated 
to more vigorous effort by the very difficulty of his sub- 
ject. But the appreciative reading of any work of litera- 
ture cannot thus be prescribed. Of course the instructor 
may do much to help the student to such appreciation — 
that, indeed, is his chief duty; but he will not try to ex- 
pound or enjoin emotional effects. Recognizing these 
limitations upon his work, he often finds it difficult to avoid 
one or the other of two dangers that beset all efforts to 
teach a vernacular literature: the student must not think 



The Teaching of English Literature 383 



his reading an idle pastime, nor, on the other hand, must 
he think it a repellent task. In the first case, he is likely 
never to read anything well; in the second case, the things 
best worth reading he will probably never read at all. 
Of the two dangers, the first is the more serious. The 
student ought early to learn that no really good reading 
is "light reading." And it may be remarked that this 
lesson was never more needed than today. There was never 
a time when people of all classes read more and thought 
less. We have what might almost be called a plague of 
reading, and an astonishing amount of what is called 
"reading matter" rolling out of our presses every year; 
while, significantly, we are producing very few books of 
permanent literary value. If the college study of litera- 
ture is to encourage this indolent receptive temper, and 
relax the intellectual fiber of the student, then we might 
better drop it from the curriculum. The student must some- 
how learn that the book that is worth while will tax his 
thought, his imagination, his sympathies. He cannot be 
content merely to leave the door of his mind lazily open 
to it. Every teacher knows the difficulty in any attempt 
to inspire or direct such a pupil. And the simpler the 
subject assigned him, the greater the difficulty. Give him, 
for example, a group of the best lyrics in the language, 
in which the thought is simple and the sentiment homely 
or familiar. He will glance over them in half an hour, 
and then wonder what more you want of him. And you 
may not find it so easy to tell him. For he does not per- 
ceive nice shades of feeling, he has little sense of poetic 
form, he has not read the poems aloud to get the charm 
of their melody, and he will not let them linger in his mind 
long enough to feel that the simplest sentiments are often 
the most profound and moving. He simply tries to con- 
jecture what sort of questions he is likely to meet on 
examination. Doubtless from this type of pupil better re- 
sults can be obtained by the reading of prose not too 
familiar, that suggests more questions for reflection and dis- 
cussion. 



384 



College Teaching 



Suggestions 
for teaching 
of English 
literature 
— Emotion- 
al apprecia- 
tion to have 
an intellec- 
tual hasis 



Al)undant 
oral read- 
ing by teach- 
er an aid to 
apprecia- 
tion 



It is perhaps impossible to lay down a detailed method 
for the teaching of English literature. Much depends upon 
the nature of the literature read, the temperament of the 
teacher, the aptitude of the pupil. Every teacher will, 
in great measure, discover his own methods. At all events, 
no attempts will be made here to give more than a few 
suggestions. In the first place, the teacher will remember 
that every work of literature — except purely " imagist " 
poetry, which it is hardly worth while to teach — is based 
upon some thought or truth; in most varieties of prose 
literature this forms the main purpose of the writing. 
The first object of the student's reading, therefore, must be 
to understand thoroughly the intellectual element in what 
he reads; and here the instructor can often be of direct 
assistance. And after such careful reading, the higher 
emotional values of what he has read will often disclose 
themselves spontaneously, so that the reader will need little 
further help. 

Just here it is worth while to note the great value of 
reading aloud, both by the teacher as a means of instruc- 
tion, and by the pupil as a test of appreciation. All good 
writing gains vastly when read thus. Mentally, at all 
events, we must image its sound if we are to get its full 
value. As to poetry, that goes without saying; for the 
essential, defining element in poetry is music. You may 
have truth, beauty, imagination, emotion, but without music 
you have not yet got poetry. But it is hardly less true 
that prose should be read aloud. " The best test of good 
writing," said Hazlitt — and no man in his generation wrote 
better prose than he — "is, does it read well aloud." The. 
sympathetic oral reading of a passage from any prose 
master, a reading that naturally indicates points of 
emphasis, shades of thought, nuances of feeling, is often 
better than any formal explanation, for it reproduces the 
living voice of the writer. The wise teacher will avoid the 
mannerisms of the professed elocutionist or dramatic reader, 
but he will not neglect the value of truthful oral interpreta- 
tion for many passages of beautiful, or subtle, or power- 



The Teaching of English Literature 385 

ful writing. And the student will often give a better proof 
of intelligent appreciation by reading aloud, " with good 
accent and discretion," than by any more elaborate form 
of examination. 

Some varieties of literature can best be approached in- 
directly, through a study of the life of the author, or of the 
age in which he lived. As any great work of pure litera- 
ture must come out of the author's deepest life, it is evident 
that any knowledge of that life gained from other sources 
may be an important aid in the appreciation of his work. 
It is true that in the case of a writer of supreme and almost 
impartial dramatic genius, such knowledge may be of com- 
paratively little value; though few of us will admit that 
it is merely an idle curiosity that would be gratified by a 
fuller knowledge even of the man William Shakespeare. 
But all the more subjective forms of literature, such as the 
lyric and the essay, can hardly be studied intelligently 
without some biographical introduction. Still more 
obvious is the need in many instances of some accurate 
knowledge of the period in which a given work is produced. 
For all such writing as grows directly out of political or 
social conditions, as oratory, or political satire, or various 
forms of the essay, this is clearly necessary. It would be 
folly to attempt to read the speeches of Edmund Burke or 
the political writings of Swift without historical introduc- 
tion and comment. But the historical setting is hardly less 
important in many other forms of literature. For the 
whole cast of an author's mind, the habitual tone of his 
feeling on most important matters, is often largely decided 
by his environment. It is only a very inadequate apprecia- 
tion, for example, of the work not only of Carlyle and 
Ruskin but of Tennyson, Browning, and Matthew Arnold, 
that is possible without some correct knowledge of the 
varying attitude of these men toward important movements 
in English thought, social, economic, religious, between 
1830 and 1880. It must always be an important part of 
the duty of the college teacher, of literature to provide 
such biographical and historical information. 



Knowledge ' 
of author's 
life and art 
and of ideals 
of the times 
necessary 
for compre- 
hension and 
appreciation 



386 



College Teaching 



Knowledge 
of an 
author's 
style to be 
result of 
apprecia- 
tive study 
of Ms works 
and not 
gathered 
from texts 
on literary 
criticism 



Careful at- 
tention to 
critical 
analysis 



Content of 
college 
course in 
literature 



All careful study of literature must involve some atten- 
tion to manner or style — not so much, however, for its 
own sake, as a means for the fuller appreciation of what 
is read. In strictness, style has only one virtue, clear- 
ness; only one vice, obscurity. A perfect style is a trans- 
parent medium through which we plainly see the thought 
and feeling of the writer. Such a style may, indeed, often 
have striking peculiarities, but these are really the marks 
of the writer's personality, which his style reveals without 
exaggerating. All rhetorical study ought, therefore, to ac- 
company or follow, not to precede, the careful reading for 
appreciation. No good book ought ever to be considered 
a mere corpus vile for rhetorical praxis. 

Of much greater value is that distinctively critical 
analysis which endeavors to discover the different elements, 
intellectual, imaginative, emotional, that enter into any work 
of literature, and to determine their relative amount and. 
importance. Such analysis may well form the subject of 
classroom discussion, and advanced students should often 
be required to put the conclusions they have drawn from 
such discussion into the form of a finished critical essay. 
All exercises of this kind presuppose, of course, that the 
work criticized has been read with interest and intelligence; 
but no form of literary study is more stimulating or tends 
more directly to the formation of original and accurate 
critical judgments. It affords the best test of real literary 
appreciation. 

Obviously it is impossible with this method of study to 
cover the entire field of English literature in the four 
college years. It is wiser to read a few great books 
well than to read many smaller ones hurriedly. It be- 
comes, therefore, an important question on what prin^ 
ciple these books should be selected and grouped in 
courses. In the opinion of the present writer, it is well 
to begin with a brief outline sketch of the history of the 
literature given either in a textbook or by lectures, and 
illustrated by a few representative works, read carefully 
but without much detailed or intensive study. Such an 



The Teaching of English Literature 387 



introductory course may have little cultural value; but it 
furnishes that knowledge of the chronological succession 
of English writers, and the varieties of literature dominant 
in each period, that is necessary for further intelligent 
study. This knowledge should, indeed, be given in the 
preparatory schools, but unfortunately it usually is not. 
When given in college, the course should, if possible, be 
assigned to the freshman year. In the later years, the 
works selected for study will best be grouped either by 
period or by subject. Both plans have their advantages, 
but in most instances the first will be found the better. 
The study of a group of contemporary writers always gains 
in interest as we see how they all, with striking individual 
differences in temper and subject, yet reflect the social and 
moral life of their age. Sometimes the two plans may be 
united; a particular form of literature may be studied 
as the best representative of a period, as the political 
pamphlet for the age of Queen Anne or the extended essay 
for the first quarter of the nineteenth century. And in some 
rare instances a single writer is at once the highest repre- 
sentative of the age in which he lived and the supreme 
master of the form in which he wrote — as Shakespeare 
for the drama and Milton for the epic. 

These courses should all — in the judgment of the 
present writer — be elective, but should be arranged in 
some natural sequence, those assigned to a lower year 
being preparatory to those of a higher. This sequence 
need not always be historical; the simpler course may well 
precede those which for any reason are more difficult. 
Methods of instruction will also naturally change, becom- 
ing less narrowly didactic with the advancement of the 
student. In the senior year the teacher will usually prefer 
to meet his classes in small sections, on the seminar plan, 
for informal discussion and the criticism of papers written 
by his pupils on questions suggested by their reading. Of 
such questions, students who for four years have been read- 
ing the masterpieces of English literature will surely find 
no lack. 



Gradation 
of courses 
and adapta- 
tion of 
methods to 
growing ca- 
pacities of 
students 



388 



College Teaching 



TJnder- 



The number of courses that can be offered in the depart- 
ment will depend in some cases upon the relative size of 
the faculty and the student body. For in no other subject 
is it more important, especially in the later years, that 
the classes or sections should be small enough to allow 
some intimate personal touch between professor and 
student. It may be safely said that no college department 
of English literature is well officered or equipped that 
does not furnish at least four or five year-long courses of 
instruction. And certainly no student can maintain for 
four years such an acquaintance with the best specimens 
of a great literature without gaining something of that 
broad intelligence, heightened imagination, and just ap- 
preciation of whatever is best in nature and in human life, 
which combine in what we call culture. 

Throughout this paper it has been assumed that what has 
vs. graduate been termed appreciation — that is, the ability to under- 
teaching of stand and enjoy the best things in literature — is the one 

English lit- j j o 

erature central purpose to which all efforts must be subservient, 

in the teaching of English literature. But it should be re- 
membered, as stated at the outset, that this paper has to 
do with the college undergraduate only, the candidate 
for the bachelor's degree. In the university, and to some 
extent in the graduate courses of the college leading to the 
master's degree, the subjects and methods of teaching may 
well be very different. Studies in comparative literature, 
studies of literary origins, the investigation of perplexed 
or controverted questions in the life or work of an author, 
the study and elucidation of the work of an unknown or 
little-known writer — all these and many other similar 
matters may very properly be the subjects of specialized 
graduate study. But they will rarely be found of most 
profit to undergraduate classes. 

Caleb T. Winchester 

Wesleyan University 



XIX 

THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION ^ 

^^•TAEEDS, not words," is a platitude — a flat statement Language an 

I J which reduces the facts of the case to an average, menS°de- 
and calls that truth. It is absurd to imply, as does this veiopment 
old truism, that we may never judge a man by his words. 
Words are often the most convenient indices of education, 
of cultivation, and of intellectual power. And what is 
more, a man's speech, a man's writing, when properly 
interpreted, may sometimes measure the potentialities of 
the mind more thoroughly, more accurately, than the deeds 
which environment, opportunity, or luck permit. It is hard 
enough to take the intellectual measure even of the makers 
of history by their acts, so rapidly does the apparent value 
of their accomplishments vary with changing conceptions 
of what is and what is not worth doing. It is infinitely 
more difficult to judge in advance of youths just going 
out into the world by what they do. Their words, which 
reveal what they are thinking and how they are thinking, 
give almost the only vision of their minds ; and " by their 
words ye shall know them " becomes not a perversion, but 
an adaptation of the old text. Would you judge of a boy 
just graduated entirely by the acts he had performed in 
college? If you did, you would make some profound and 
illuminating mistakes. 

This explains, I think, why parents, and teachers, and 
college presidents, and even undergraduates, are exercised 
over the study of writing English — which is, after all, 
just the study of the proper putting together of words. 
They may believe, all of them, that their concern is merely 
for the results of the power to write well — the ability 
to compose a good letter, to speak forcibly on occasion, 
to offer the amount of literacy required for most " jobs." 

^ Reprinted in revised form from College Sons and College Fathers, 
Harper and Brothers. 

389 



390 



College Teaching 



Disappoint- 
ing results 
from teach- 
ing of com- 
position 



Fixing re- 
sponsibility 
for alleged 
failure of 
composition 
teaching 



But I wonder if the quite surprising keenness of their in- 
terest is not due to another cause. I wonder if they do 
not feel — perhaps unconsciously — that words indicate the 
man, that the power to write well shows intellect, and 
measures, if not its profundity, at least the stage of its 
development. We fasten on the defects of the letters 
written by undergraduates, on their faltering speeches, on 
their confused examination papers, as something significant, 
ominous, worthy even of comment in the press. And we 
are, I believe, perfectly right. Speech and writing, if 
you get them in fair samples, indicate the extent and the 
value of a college education far better than a degree. 

It is this conviction which, pressing upon the schools 
and colleges, has caused such a flood of courses and text- 
books, such an expenditure of time, energy, and money in 
the teaching of composition, so many ardent hopes of ac- 
complishment, so much bitter disappointment at relative 
failure. I do not know how many are directly or in- 
directly teaching the writing of English in America — per- 
haps some tens of thousands; the imagination falters at 
the thought of how many are trying to learn it. Thus 
the parent, conscious of this enormous endeavor and the 
convictions which inspire it, is somewhat appalled to hear 
the critics without the colleges maintaining that we are not 
teaching good writing, and the critics within protesting that 
good writing cannot be taught. 

It is with the teachers, the administrators, the theorists 
on education, but most of all the teachers, that the re- 
sponsibility for the alleged failure of this great project — 
to endow the college graduate with adequate powers of 
expression — must be sought. But these guardians of ex- 
pression are divided into many groups, of which four are 
chief. 

There is first the great party of the Know-Nothings, who 
plan and teach with no opinion whatsoever as to the ends of 
their teaching. Under the conditions of human nature and 
current financial rewards for the work, this party is in- 
evitably large; but it counts for nothing except inertia. 



The Teaching of English Composition 391 

There is next the respectable and efficient cohort of the 
Do-Nothings, who believe that good writing and speaking 
are natural emanations from culture, as health from exer- 
cise or clouds from the sea. They would cultivate the mind 
of the undergraduate, and let expression take care of it- 
self. They do not believe in teaching English composition. 
Next are the Formalists, who hold up a dictionary in one 
hand, the rules of rhetoric in the other, and say, " Learn 
these, and good writing and good speaking shall be added 
unto you." The Formalists have weakened in late years. 
There have been desertions to the Do-Nothings, for the work 
of grinding rules into unwilling minds is hard, and it is 
far easier to adopt a policy of laissez-faire. But there have 
been far more desertions into a party which I shall call, 
for want of a better name, the Optimists. The Optimists 
believe that in teaching to write and speak the American 
college is accepting its most significant if not its greatest 
duty. They believe that we must understand what causes 
good writing, in order to teach it; and that for the average 
undergraduate writing must be taught. 

The best way to approach this grand battleground of Divergent 
educational policies is by the very practical fashion of pre- teaching of 
tending (if pretense is necessary) that you have a son composition 
(or a daughter) ready for college. What does he need, 
what must he have in a writing way, in a speaking way, 
when he has passed through all the education you see fit to 
give him? What should he possess of such ability in order 
to satisfy the world and himself? Facts, ideas and imagina- 
tion, to put it roughly, make up the substance of expres- 
sion. Facts he must be able to present clearly and faith- 
fully; ideas he must be able to present clearly and com- 
prehensively; his imagination he will need to express when 
his nature demands it. And for all these needs he must 
be able to use knowingly the words which study and ex- 
perience will feed to him. He must be able to combine 
these words effectively in order to express the thoughts 
of which he is capable. And these thoughts he must work 
out along lines of logical, reasonable developments, so that 



392 College Teaching 

what he says or writes will have an end and attain it. 
In addition, if he is imaginative — and who is not? — he 
should know the color and fire of words, the power of 
rhythm and harmony over the emotions, the qualities of 
speech whose secret will enable him to mold language 
to his personality and perhaps achieve a style. This he 
should know; the other powers he must have, or stop short 
of his full efficiency. 

Alas, we all know that the undergraduate, in the mass, 
fails often to attain even to the power of logical, accurate 
statement, whether of facts or ideas. It is true that most 
of the charges against him are to a greater or less degree 
irrelevant. Weighty indictments of his powers of expres- 
sion are based upon bad spelling: a sign, it is true, of 
slovenliness, an indication of a lack of thoroughness which 
goes deeper than the misplacing of letters, but not in it- 
self a proof of inability to express. Great writers have 
often misspelled ; and the letters which some of our capable 
business men write when the stenographer fails to come 
back after lunch are by no means impeccable. Other ac- 
cusations refer to a childish vagueness of expression — due 
to the fact that the American undergraduate is often a child 
intellectually rather than to any defects in composition 
per se. But it is a waste of time to deny that he writes, 
if not badly, at least not so clearly, so correctly, so in- 
telligently, as we expect. The question is, why? 

It would be a comfort to place the blame upon the 
schools; and indeed they must take some blame, not only 
because they deserve it, but also to enlighten those critics 
of the college who never consider the kind of grain which 
comes into our hoppers. The readers of college entrance 
papers could tell a mournful story of how the candidates 
for our freshman classes write. Here, for an instance, is a 
paragraph intended to prove that the writer had a com- 
mand of simple English, correct in sentence structure, spell- 
ing, capitalization, and punctuation. The subject is "The 
Value of Organized Athletics in Schools " — not an abstruse 
one, or too academic: 



The Teaching of English Composition 393 

If fellows are out in the open and take athletics say at a certain 
time every-day; These fellows are in good health and allert in their 
lessons, while those who take no exercise are logy and soft. Organ- 
ized athletics in a school bring the former, while if a school has no 
athletics every-thing goes more or less slipshod, and the fellows are 
more liable to get into trouble, because they are nervious from having 
nothing to do. 

This is a little below the average of the papers rejected 
for entrance to college. It is not a fair sample of what 
the schools can do, but it is a very fair sample of what 
they often do not do. It was not written by a foreigner, 
nor, I judge, by a son of illiterate parents, since it came 
from an expensive Eastern preparatory school. The reader, 
marking with some heat a failure for the essay from which 
this paragraph is extracted, would not complain of the 
writer's paucity of ideas. His ideas are not below the 
average of his age. He would keep his wrath for the 
broken, distorted sentences, the silly spelling, the lack 
(which would appear in the whole composition) of even a 
rudimentary construction to carry the thought. Spelling, 
the fundamentals of punctuation, and the compacting of a 
sentence must be taught in the schools, for it is too late to 
cure diseases of these members in college. They can be 
abated; but again and again they will break out. It is 
the school's business to teach them; and the weary reader 
sees in this unhappy specimen but a dark and definite 
manifestation of a widespread slovenliness in secondary 
education, a lack of thoroughness which appears not only in 
the failures, but also, though in less measure, among the 
better writers, whose work is too good in other respects 
not to be reluctantly passed. 

Again, it would be easy to place much of the blame for 
the slipshod writings of the undergraduate upon the stand- 
ards set by his elders outside the colleges. Editors can 
tell of the endless editing which contributions, even from 
writers supposed to be professional, will sometimes re- 
quire. And when such a sentence as the following slips 
through, and begins an article in a well-known, highly re- 



394 



College Teaching 



Democratiz- 
ing educa- 
tion and im- 
migration 
the cause of 
poor quality 
of expres- 
sion 



spectable magazine, we can only say, " If gold rust, what 
will iron do? " 

Yes the Rot — and witli a very big R — in sport : for that, thanks to 
an overdone and too belauded a Professionalism by a large section of 
the pandering press, is what it has got to. 

Again, any business man could produce from his files 
a collection of letters full of phrasing so vague and incon- 
sequential that only his business instincts and knowledge 
of the situation enable him to interpret it. Any lawyer 
could give numberless instances where an inability to write 
clear and simple English has caused litigation without end. 
Indeed, the bar is largely supported by errors in English 
composition ! And as for conversation conducted — I will 
not say with pedantical correctness, for that is not an ideal, 
but with accuracy and transparency of thought — listen to 
the talk about you ! 

However, it is the business of the colleges to improve 
all that; and though it is not easy to develop in youth 
virtues which are more admired than practiced by maturity, 
let us assume that they should succeed in turning out writers 
of satisfactory ability, even with these handicaps, and look 
deeper for the cause of their relative failure. 

The chief cause of the prevalent inadequacy of expres- 
sion among our undergraduates is patent, and its effects 
are by no means limited to America, as complaints from 
France and from England prove. The mob — the many- 
headed, the many-mouthed, figured in the past by poets as 
dumb, or, at best, an incoherent thing of brutish noises 
signifying speech — is acquiring education and learning 
how to express it. Hundreds of thousands whose an- 
cestors never read, and seldom talked except of the simpler 
needs of life, are doing the talking and the writing which 
their large share in the transaction of the world's business 
demands. Indeed, democracy requires not only that the 
illiterate shall learn to read and write in the narrower 
sense of the words, but also that the relatively literate must 
seek with their growing intellectuality a more perfect power 



The Teaching of English Composition 395 

of expression. And it is precisely from the classes only 
relatively literate — those for whom in the past there has 
been no opportunity, and no need, to become highly 
educated — that the bulk of our college students today are 
coming, the bulk of the students in the endowed institutions 
of the East as well as in the newer State universities of 
the West. The typical undergraduate is no longer the son 
of a lawyer or a clergyman, with an intellectual background 
behind him. 

There is plenty of grumbling among college faculties, 
and in certain newspapers, over this state of affairs. In 
reality, of course, it is the opportunity of the American 
colleges. Let the motives be what they may, the simple 
fact that so many American parents wish to give their 
children more education than they themselves were blessed 
with is a condition so favorable for those who believe 
that in the long run only intelligence can keep our civiliza- 
tion on the path of real progress, that one expects to hear 
congratulations instead of wails from the college campuses. 

Nevertheless, we pay for our opportunity, and we must 
expect to pay. The thousands of intellectual immigrants, 
ill-supplied with means of progress, indefinite of aim, un- 
aware of their opportunities, who land every September 
at the college gates, constitute a weighty burden, a terrible 
responsibility. And the burden rests upon no one with 
more crushing weight than upon the unfortunate teacher 
of composition. That these entering immigrants cannot 
write well is a symptom of their mental rawness. It is to 
be expected. But thanks to the methods of slipshod, am- 
bitious America, the schools have passed them on still shaky 
in the first steps of accurate writing — spelling, punctua- 
tion, sentence structure, and the use of words. Thanks to 
the failure of America to demand thoroughness in anything 
but athletics and business, they are blind to the need of 
thoroughness in expression. And thanks to the inescapable 
difficulty of accurate writing, they resist the attempt to make 
them thorough, with the youthful mind's instinctive re- 
bellion against work. Nevertheless, whatever the cost, they 



396 



College Teaching 



Solutions 
proposed by 
four types 
of instruct- 
ors 



must learn if they are to become educated in any practical 
and efficient sense; the immigrants especially must learn, 
since they come from environments where accurate expres' 
sion has not been practiced — often has not been needed — 
and go to a future where it will be required of them. Not 
even the Do-Nothing school denies the necessity that the 
undergraduate should learn to write well. But how? 

The Know-Nothing school proposes no ultimate solution 
and knows none, unless faithfully teaching what they are 
told to teach, and accepting the sweat and burden of the 
day, with few of its rewards, be not in its blind way a better 
solution than to dodge the responsibility altogether. 

The Formalists labor over precept and principle — dis- 
ciplining, commanding, threatening — feeling more grief 
over one letter lost, or one comma mishandled, than joy 
over the most spirited of incorrect effusions. They turn 
out sulky youths who nevertheless have learned some- 
thing. 

The Do-Nothings propose a solution which is engaging, 
logical — and insufficient. They are the philosophers and 
the aesthetes among teachers, who see, what the Formalists 
miss, that he who thinks well will in the long run write as 
he should. Their special horror is of the compulsory 
theme, extracted from unwilling and idealess minds. Their 
remedy for all ills of speech and pen is: teach, not writ- 
ing and speaking, but thinking; give, not rules and prin- 
ciples, but materials for thought. And above all, do not 
force college students to study composition. The Do- 
Nothing school has almost enough truth on its side to be 
right. It has more truth, in fact, than its principles per- 
mit it to make use of. 

The umpire in this contest — who is the parent with a 
son ready for college — should note, however, two pervad- 
ing fallacies in this laissez-faire theory of writing English. 
The first belongs to the party of the right among the Do- 
Nothings — the older teachers who come from the genera- 
tion which sent only picked men to college; the second, 
to the party of the left — the younger men who are dis- 



The Teaching of English Composition 397 

tressed by the toil, the waste, the stupidity which accom- 
pany so much work in composition. 

The older men attack the attempt to teach the making 
of literature. Their hatred of the cheap, the banal, and the 
false in literature that has been machine-made by men 
who have learned to express finely what is not worth ex- 
pressing at all, leads them to distrust the teaching of English 
composition. They condemn, however, a method of teach- 
ing that long since withered under their scorn. The aim 
of the college course in composition today is not the mak- 
ing of literature, but writing; not the production of 
imaginative masterpieces, but the orderly arrangement of 
thought in words. Through no foresight of our own, but 
thanks to the pressure of our immigrants upon us, we have 
ceased teaching " eloquence " and " rhetoric," and have 
taken upon ourselves the humbler task of helping the 
thinking mind to find words and a form of expression 
as quickly and as easily as possible. The old teacher of 
rhetoric aspired to make Burkes, Popes, or De Quinceys. 
We are content if our students become the masters rather 
than the servants of their prose. 

The party of the left presents a more frontal attack upon 
the teaching of the writing of English. Show the under- 
graduate how to think, they say; fill his mind with knowl- 
edge, and his pen will find the way. Ah, but there is the 
fallacy ! Why not help him to find the way — as in Latin, 
or surveying, or English literature? The way in composi- 
tion can be taught, as in these other subjects. Writing, 
like skating, or sailing a boat, has its special methods, its 
special technique, even as it has its special medium, words, 
and the larger unities of expression. The laws which 
govern it are simple. They are always in intimate con- 
nection with the thought behind, and worthless without it; 
but they can be taught. Ask any effective teacher of com- 
position to show you what he has done time and again 
for the freshman whose sprawling thought he has helped 
to form into coherent and unified expression. And do not 
be deceived by analogies drawn from our colleges of the 



398 College Teaching 

mid-nineteenth century, where composition was not taught, 
and men wrote well ; or from the English universities, where 
the same conditions are said (with dissenting voices) to 
exist. In the first place, they had no immigrant problem 
in the mid-century, nor have they in Oxford and Cambridge. 
In the second, the rigorous translation back and forward 
between the classics and the mother tongue, now obsolete 
in America, but still a requisite for an English university 
training, provides a drill in accuracy of language whose 
efficiency is not to be despised. 

The student must express his intellectual gains even as 
he absorbs them, or the crystallization of knowledge into 
personal thought will be checked at the beginning. The 
boy must be able to say what he knows, or write what he 
knows, or he does not know it. And it is as important 
to help him express as to help him absorb. The teachers 
in other departments must aid in this task or we fail; but 
where the whole duty of making expression keep pace with 
thought and with life is given to them, they will be forced 
either to overload, or to neglect all but the little arcs that 
bound their subjects. And since they are specialists in 
other fields, and so may neglect that technique of writing 
which in itself is a special study, their task, when they ac- 
cept it, is hard, and their labor, when it is forced upon 
them, too often inefl!"ective. Composition must be taught 
where college education proceeds — that is the truth of the 
matter ; and if not taught directly, then indirectly, with pain 
and with waste. 

The school of the Optimists approaches this question of 
writing English with self-criticism and with a full realiza- 
tion of the difficulties, and of the tentative nature of the 
methods now in use, but with confidence as to the possibility 
of ultimate success. In order to be an Optimist in com- 
position you must have some stirrings of democracy in your 
veins. You must be interested in the need of the average 
man to shape his writing into a useful tool that will serve 
his purposes, whether in the ministry or the soap business. 
This is the utilitarian end of writing English. And you 



The Teaching of English Composition 399 



must be interested in developing his powers of self-expres- 
sion, even when convinced that no great soul is longing for 
utterance, but only a commonplace human mind — like 
your own — that will be eased by powers of writing and of 
speech. It is here that composition is of service to the 
imagination, and incidentally to culture; and I should speak 
more largely of this service if there were space in this 
chapter to bring forward all the aspects of college com- 
position. It is the personal end of writing English. If 
the average man turns out to be a superman with mighty 
purposes ahead, or if he has a great soul seeking utter- 
ance, he will have far less need of your assistance; but you 
can aid him, nevertheless, and your aid will count as never 
before, and will be your greatest personal reward, though 
no greater service to the community than the countless 
hours spent upon the minds of the multitude. 

In order to be an Optimist it is still more important to 
understand that writing English well depends first upon 
intellectual grasp, and second upon technical skill, and 
always upon both. As for the first, your boy, if you are 
the parent of an undergraduate, is undergoing a curious ex- 
perience in college. Against his head a dozen teachers are 
discharging round after round of information. Sometimes 
they miss; sometimes the shots glance off; sometimes the 
charge sinks in. And his brain is undergoing less obvious 
assaults. He is like the core of soft iron in an electro-mag- 
net upon which invisible influences are constantly beating. 
His teachers are harassing his mind with methods of think- 
ing: the historical method; the experimental method of sci- 
ence; the interpretative method of literature. Unfortu- 
nately, the charges of information too often lodge higgledy- 
piggledy, like bird-shot in a signboard ; and the waves of in- 
fluence make an impression which is too often incoherent and 
confused. If the historians really taught the youth to think 
historically from the beginning, and the scientists really 
taught him to think scientifically from the beginning, and 
he could apply his new methods of thought to the expres- 
sion of his own emotions, experiences, life, then the teacher 



400 



College Teaching 



Ho'w teach 
college stu- 
dents the 
art of self- 
expression? 



of composition might confine himself to the second of his 
duties, and teach only that technique which makes writing 
to uncoil itself as easily and as vividly as a necklace of 
matched and harmonious stones. In the University of 
Utopia we shall leave the organization of thought to the 
other departments, and have plenty left to do; but we are 
not yet in Utopia. 

At present, the teacher of composition stands like a 
sentry at the gates of knowledge, challenging all who come 
out speaking random words and thoughts; asking, "Have 
you thought it out? " " Have you thought it out clearly? " 
" Can you put your conclusions into adequate words? " 
And if the answers are unsatisfactory, he must proceed to 
teach that orderly, logical development of thought from 
cause to effect which underlies all provinces of knowledge, 
and reaches well into the unmapped territories of the 
imagination. But even in Utopia composition must remain 
the testing ground of education, though we shall hope for 
more satisfactory answers to our challenges. And even in 
Utopia, where the undergraduate perfects his thinking 
while acquiring his facts, it will be the duty of the teacher 
of writing to help him to apply his intellectual powers to 
his experiences, his emotions, his imagination, in short, to 
self-expression. And there will still remain the technique 
of writing. 

Theoretically, when the undergraduate has assembled his 
thoughts he is ready and competent to write them, but prac- 
tically he is neither entirely ready nor usually entirely com- 
petent. It is one thing to assemble an automobile; it is 
another thing to run it. The technique of writing is not 
nearly as interesting as the subject and the thought of writ- 
ing; just as the method of riding a horse is not nearly as 
interesting as the ride itself. And yet when you consider 
it as a means to an end, as a subtle, elastic, and infinitely 
useful craft, the method of writing is not uninteresting even 
to those who have to learn and not to teach it. The tech- 
nique of composition has to do with words. We are most 
of us inapt with words; even when ideas begin to come 



The Teaching of English Comjjosition 401 

plentifully they too often remain vague, shapeless, ineffec- 
tive, for want of words to name them. And words can be 
taught — not merely the words themselves, but their power, 
their suggestiveness, their Tightness or wrongness for the 
meaning sought. The technique of writing has to do with 
sentences. Good thinking makes good sentences, but the 
sentence must be flexible if it is to ease the thought. We 
can learn its elasticity, we can practice the flow of clauses, 
until the wooden declaration which leaves half unexpressed 
gives place to a fluent and accurate transcript of the mind, 
form fitting substance as the vase the water within it. This 
technique has to do with paragraphs. . The critic knows how 
few even among our professional writers master their para- 
graphs. It is not a dead, fixed form that is to be sought. 
It is rather a flexible development, which grows beneath 
the reader's eye until the thought is opened with vigor 
and with truth. It is interesting to search in the para- 
graph of an ineffective editorial, an article, or theme, for the 
sentence that embodies the thought; to find it dropped 
like a turkey's egg where the first opportunity offers, or 
hidden by the rank growth of comment and reflection about 
it. Such research is illuminating for those who do not 
believe in the teaching of composition; and if it begins at 
home, so much the better. And finally, the technique of 
writing has to do with the whole, whether sonnet, or business 
letter, or report to a board of directors. How to lead one 
thought into another; how to exclude the irrelevant; how 
to weigh upon that which is important; how to hold to- 
gether the whole structure so that the subject, all the sub- 
ject, and nothing but the subject shall be laid before the 
reader: this requires good thinking, but good thinking with- 
out technical skill is like a strong arm in tennis without 
facility in the strokes. 

The program I have outlined is simpler in theory than 
in practice. In practice, it is easier to discover the dis- 
order than the thought which it confuses; in practice, tech- 
nical skill must be forced upon undergraduates unaccus- 
tomed to thoroughness, in a country that in no department 



402 College Teaching 

of life, except perhaps business, has hitherto been com- 
pelled to value technique. Even the optimist grows pessi- 
mistic sometimes in teaching composition. 

And yet in the teaching of English the results are per- 
haps more evident than elsewhere in the whole range of col- 
lege work. It is wonderful to see what can be accom- 
plished by an enthusiast in the sport of transmuting brains 
into words. When the teacher seeks for his material in the 
active interests of the student — whether athletics or engi- 
neering or literature or catching trout — when he stirs up 
the finer interests, drawing off, as it were, the cream into 
words, the results are convincing. Writing is one of the 
most fascinating, most engaging of pursuits for the man 
with a craving to grasp the reality about him and name it 
in words. And even for the undergraduate, whose imagina- 
tion is just developing, and whose brain protests against 
logical thought, it can be made as interesting as it is use- 
ful. 

The teaching of English composition in this country is a 
vast industry in which thousands of workmen are employed 
and in which a million or so of young minds are invested. 
I do not wish to take it too seriously. There are many 
accomplishments more important for the welfare of the 
race. And yet, if it be true that maturity of intellect is 
never attained without that clearness and accuracy of think- 
ing which can be made to show itself in good writing, then 
the failure of the undergraduate to write well is serious, and 
the struggle to make him write better worthy of the atten- 
tion of those who have children to be educated. I do not 
think that success in this struggle will come through the 
policy of laissez-faire. All undergraduates profit by organ- 
ized help in their writing; many require it. I do not 
think that success will come by a pedantical insistence upon 
correctness in form without regard to the sense. Squeezing 
unwilling words from indifferent minds may be discipline; 
it certainly is not teaching. I think that success will come 
only to the teacher who is a middleman between thought and 
expression, valuing both. When we succeed in making the 



The Teaching of English Composition 403 

bulk of the undergraduates really think; when we can in- 
spire them with a modicum of that passion for truth in 
words which is the moving force of the good writer; when 
the schools help us and the outside world demands and 
supports efficiency in diction; then we shall carry through 
the program of the Optimists. 

Henry SeIidel Canby 

Yale University 



XX 

THE TEACHING OF THE CLASSICS 



Significance 
of recent 
criticisms 
of the 
teaching of 
the classics 



METHODS of teaching are determined to a large ex- 
tent by appreciation of the objects to be attained. 
. f teachers make clear to themselves just what they wish to 
accomplish, they will more easily develop the means. The 
storm of objection now rising against the study of the 
Classics indicates clearly that there is a general dissatis- 
faction with the result of this study. There is a striking 
unanimity on this subject among persons of widely different 
talent and experience, of whom some are still students, 
while others are looking back upon their training in school 
and college after years of mature life. Their adverse criti- 
cism is all the more significant because often expressed with 
obvious regret. Some, who have had unusual opportunities 
for observation, state their opinion in no uncertain lan- 
guage. For example, Mr. Abraham Flexner, in his pam- 
phlet "A Modern School," on page 18 says: "Neither 
Latin nor Greek would be contained in the curriculum of 
the Modern School — not, of course, because their liter- 
atures are less wonderful than they are reputed to be, but 
because their present position in the curriculum rests upon 
tradition and assumption. A positive case can be made 
out for neither." The president of Columbia University, in 
his Annual Report for 1915-1916, page 15, speaking of the 
" teachers of the ancient classics," says: " They have here- 
tofore been all too successful in concealing from their pupils 
the real significance and importance of Greek and Latin 
studies." Such criticisms, however, do not prove that the 
study of the Classics cannot accomplish all that its advo- 
cates claim for it, but only that it is not now accomplishing 
satisfactory results. 

Undoubtedly there are various causes for a depreciation 
of classical studies at the present time. Other subjects, 

404 



The Teaching of the Classics 405 

such as mathematics, are suffering from a similar disparage- 
ment. In recent years interest has centered more and more 
in studies designed to develop powers of observation, give 
knowledge of certain facts, or provide equipment for some 
particular vocation, to the neglect of those which discipline 
the mind or impart a general culture. It is certainly im- 
portant, therefore, to consider the relative values of these 
various studies. To do so it is desirable to examine the 
aims of classical teaching and the methods by which these 
aims may be realized; for it is at least possible that the 
widespread dissatisfaction with this teaching is due not 
so much to the subject itself as to defects and insufficiency 
in the methods employed. 

Not all teachers of the Classics agree in all respects as The present 
to the aims of their teaching. Certain aims, however, are classical 
common to all the classical departments in American col- teaching 
leges. These are: 

1. To train students, through the acquisition and use of 
the ancient languages, in memory, accuracy, analysis and 
logic, clearness and fluency of expression, and style. 

2. To enable certain students to read with profit and en- 
joyment the masterpieces of Greek and Latin literature. 

3. To impart to certain students a knowledge, as com- 
plete as possible, of the classical civilization as a whole. 
To a complete knowledge of this civilization belongs all 
that the ancients possessed or did, all that they thought or 
wrote, whether or not any particular part of it had an 
influence upon later times or is, in itself, interesting or 
valuable now. All parts alike are phenomena of the life 
of these ancient peoples and so of the life of the human 
race.' 

4. To impart a knowledge and understanding of the 
thoughts and ideas, the forms of expression, the institu- 
tions, and the experiences of the ancients, in so far as these 
are either actually valuable in themselves to the modern 
world or have influenced the development of modern civili- 
zation. 

Besides these aims which are common to all, there are 



406 College Teaching 

certain others less generally pursued by classical teachers 
in this country. Among these are: 

5. To make students familiar with "the Greek (and 
Latin) in English," i.e. with the etymology and history of 
words in our own language which had their origin in or 
through Greek or Latin.^ 

6. To trace the influences of the classic literature upon 
modern literature and thought.^ 

7. To train those who expect to teach the Classics in 
pedagogical methods, and to familiarize them with modern 
pedagogical appliances.^ 

8. To teach the language of the New Testament and of the 
Church Fathers.* 

The classical departments of some colleges also give 
courses in Modern Greek ^ : such courses, however, belong 
properly to the field of Modern Languages. 

Now it is by no means certain that all of these aims 
properly concern all classes of students. On the contrary, 
every one would doubtless agree that those described under 
Nos. 7 and 8 do not concern the average student of the 
Classics. It is also a debatable question whether it should 
be the aim of classical teaching to give all classical students 
some knowledge of the classic civilization as a whole; 
whether, for example, Aristophanes and Plautus, however 
important these authors may be for a complete understand- 
ing of the ancient life and literature, are worth while for all 
classical students alike. It is far more important, how- 

1 For example, at the University of Kansas. 

2 Leland Stanford, Michigan, Princeton. 

^ California, North Dakota, Harvard, Idaho, Illinois, Kansas, Leland 
Stanford, Michigan, Oberlin, Otterbein, Pennsylvania, Vermont, 
Wisconsin, Yale, etc. Some of these courses are offered only to 
graduate students, and some are given by the Departments of Peda- 
gogics. 

^ In New Testament or Patristic Greek at Austin, Bucknell, Cali- 
fornia, Cornell, Harvard, Illinois, Lafayette, Michigan, Millsaps, 
Trinity, Wesleyan. In Patristic Latin, Bucknell and elsewhere. 

^' Brown, Cornell, Leland Stanford. 
N. B. These lists are by no means complete. 



The Teaching of the Classics 407 

ever, to determine whether, in that which seems to many 

persons the chief business of a classical department, all who 

study the masterpieces of the ancient literatures should be 

taught to study them in the original language. 

No one doubts that classical departments should provide Teaching 

.1 • T -1 . . , , , from the 

courses on the ancient literature in the original, or that the originals 

aesthetic qualities of a literature can be fully appreciated °^^^ 
only in the original language. Some people, however, main- 
tain that every literary production is primarily a work 
of art, and consequently that its aesthetic qualities are its 
most essential qualities: that to teach the classical liter- 
ature through the medium of translations would be aiming 
at an imperfect appreciation of its most essential qualities, 
and would also divert students from the study of its 
original form. Yet in most colleges courses on painting and 
sculpture are given through the medium of photographs, 
casts and copies, and no one questions the value and effec- 
tiveness of such courses, or doubts that they tend to in- 
crease the desire of the students to know the originals 
themselves. Similarly courses on Greek literature in 
translations are given at many American colleges, for ex- 
ample at Bucknell, California, Colorado, Harvard,^ Idaho, 
Illinois, Kansas, Lafayette, Leland Stanford, Michigan, 
Missouri, New York University, North Dakota, Pennsyl- 
vania, Syracuse, Tennessee, Vermont, Washington University, 
Wesleyan, and Wisconsin: courses in Latin literature in 
translations at California, Colorado, Kansas, Leland Stan- 
ford, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Washington University. 
Besides these there are courses at some colleges on Greek 
or Roman Life and Thought,^ or Life and Letters,^ or 
Civilization,^ most of which do not involve the use of the 

^ History of Greek Tragedy. Lectures with reading and study of the 
plays of ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Requires no knowl- 
edge of the Greek language. 

2 E. g., Columbia, Lafayette.' 

2 California, Washington University. 

* Colorado, Idaho, Syracuse, Vermont, Washington University, Wes- 
leyan, Wisconsin. 



408 



College Teaching 



Teaching 
only from 
classical 
texts 



ancient languages on the part of the students. For ex- 
ample, at Brown courses which require no knowledge of the 
ancient languages are given in both Greek and Roman 
" Civilization as Illustrated by the Literature, History and 
Monuments of Art." ^ Harvard also offers courses en- 
titled " A Survey of Greek Civilization " and " A Sur- 
vey of Roman Civilization, Illustrated from the Monuments 
and Literature," in which a knowledge of the ancient lan- 
guages is not required. 

In deciding the question here at issue it is essential 
to distinguish between the different kinds of literature. 
The value of certain literary productions undoubtedly con- 
sists chiefly in the aesthetic qualities of their form; that 
is, the excellence and influence of these productions depends 
upon the particular language actually used by the author. 
Such works of literature lose very much in translation, 
and it may be asserted with some reason that they lose 
their most essential qualities. It may well be doubted, 
therefore, whether any one can derive great pleasure or 
benefit from the study of the poems of Sappho or the odes 
of Horace, for example, unless these are studied in the 
original. The value of other literary productions, on the 
other hand, lies partly in their form and partly in their con- 
tent, or in their content alone. It is quite a different ques- 
tion, therefore, whether one may derive a satisfactory 
pleasure and benefit from a translation of the Agamemnon 
of ^schylus or Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian 
War, of Lucretius or Tacitus, to say nothing of such books 
as Aristotle's Constitution of Athens. 

There is another and still more important question con- 
nected with the theory of classical teaching, namely whether 
all classical courses should be based upon or begin with 
the study of some classical text. Some are of the opinion 
that it is the business of classical teachers to teach the 
Greek and Latin languages, and the literatures in these 

1 It should be noted that at Brown the titles of the classical depart- 
ments are " The Department of Greek Literature and History " and 
" The Department of Roman Literature and History." 



The Tcachirifj of the Classics 409 

languages, and that anything which cannot be taught best 
through the study of some portion of the classical litera- 
ture in the original should be taught by some other depart- 
ment of the college. Consequently in some institutions 
courses on ancient literature in English translations are 
given by the English Department,^ courses on Greek and 
Roman History, Archaeology, and Philosophy by the De- 
partments of History, Archaeology, and Philosophy, respec- 
tively, courses on the Methods and Equipment of Teaching 
the Classics by the Department of Pedagogy. 

Others, less extreme in their views, hold (a) that any 
study of the Greek or Roman civilization apart from the 
original ancient literature would be vague, discoursive, and 
unprofitable, and in particular that a discussion of a litera- 
ture or of literary forms without an immediate, personal 
acquaintance with this literature or these literary forms in 
the original would not be useful, and (6) that such courses 
would have little permanent value for the students because 
it would not be possible to compel the students to make 
much effort for themselves. 

Quite the opposite opinion on this most important ques- 
tion is held by those who believe (a) that the study of 
the Classics should not be confined to those who are now 
able, or may in the future be expected, to read the ancient 
literature in the original, (b) that there are some things even 
about the ancient literature and civilization which can be 
taught more effectively without the loss of time and the di- 
vision of attention involved in reading the ancient authors 
in the original, and (c) that in courses such as those deal- 
ing with ancient history ancient books on these subjects, 
either in the original or in translations, cannot properly be 
used as textbooks for the reason that, quite apart from 
their errors and misconceptions, these books do not con- 
tain, except incidentally, those phases of the ancient life 
which are the most interesting and valuable to the modern 
world. Such persons consider that the attempt to convey 
an appreciation of the ancient literature through those lim- 

1 At Cornell and Oberlin, for example. 



410 



College Teaching 



Courses in 
the ancient 
languages 



ited portions of it which can be read by the students in 
the original is necessarily ineffective. They hold that to 
appreciate any literature one must study it as literature, — 
i.e., as English literature should be studied by English stu- 
dents, French literature by French students, — and that lit- 
erary study of this sort properly begins where translation 
and exegesis leave off. And finally, they maintain that the 
effort to give students a lively knowledge of ancient life or 
ancient history through the ancient texts is precisely like the 
effort to illustrate ancient life by ancient works of art; e.g., 
to give a student an idea of an ancient soldier by showing 
him an ancient picture of a soldier. Such illustrations con- 
vey instead the impression that ancient life was both un- 
attractive and unreal, that the study of it is childish and 
unpractical.^ 

Many classical courses are designed primarily to teach 
the classical languages themselves, or to give mental train- 
ing through the study and use of these languages. Until 
recently most American colleges required for admission an 
elementary knowledge of these languages involving com- 
monly at least three years of preparatory training in Greek 
and from three to five years of preparatory Latin. Now, 
however, many colleges provide courses for beginners in 
Greek, some also for beginners in Latin. For example, 
courses for beginners in Greek are given at Bryn Mawr, 
University of California, Chicago, Colorado, Columbia, 
University of North Dakota, Dartmouth, Harvard, Idaho, 
Illinois, Johns Hopkins, Kansas, Lafayette, Leland Stanford, 
Michigan, New York University, Northwestern, Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, University of Tennessee, Vanderbilt, 
Vermont, Washington University, Wesleyan, Williams, Wis- 
consin, Yale, and elsewhere. Courses for beginners in 
Latin are given, for example, at the Universities of Idaho, 
Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Ordinarily these courses 
resemble in general plan and method the corresponding 
courses in secondary schools; but inasmuch as the students 
are more mature, the progress is much more rapid. 

1 See especially Clarence P. Bill, " The Business of a College Greek 
Department," Classical Journal, IX (1913-14), pp. 111-121. 



The Teaching of the Classics 411 

In some institutions the attempt is made in teaching "j^^^ 
ancient Greek and Latin to employ methods used by the Method" 
teachers of modern languages. Some classical teachers have 
even adopted to some extent the so-called " natural " or 
"direct" method of language teaching^: commonly such 
attempts have not been very successful, and where some 
degree of success has been attained the success seems 
due to the personality and enthusiasm of the individual 
teacher. Others have contented themselves with devot- 
ing a part of certain courses to exercises designed 
to show the students that the classical languages were 
at one time in daily use among living people and were 
the media of ordinary conversation.'^ Students in such 
courses commonly memorize certain colloquial phrases 
and take part in simple conversations in which these 
phrases can be used. Such methods, skillfully employed, 
undoubtedly relieve the tedium of the familiar drill in 
grammar and " prose composition," and may help materi- 
ally in imparting both a knowledge of the ancient lan- 
guages and a facility in reading the ancient authors. 

An interesting experiment is now being tried at the 
University of California in a course in Greek for beginners, 
given by Professor James T. Allen. The description of the 
course in the university catalogue is as follows: "An In- 
troduction to the Greek Language based upon graded selec- 
tions from the works of Menander, Euclid, Aristophanes, 
Plato, Herodotus, and the New Testament. The method of 
presentation emphasizes the living phrase, and has as its 
chief object the acquiring of reading power. Mastery of 
essential forms; memorizing of quotations; practice in read- 
ing at sight." This course has had considerable success. 

1 See the article by Mr. Theodosius S. Tyng in Classical Weekly, VII 1 
(1915), Nos. 24 and 25. Also M. J. Russell: "The Direct Method 
of Teaching Latin," in the Classical Journal, XII (1916), pages 209 
211, and other articles on this subject in the Classical Journal and 
the Classical Weekly in recent years. 

2 For example, "Latin Conversation," at Columbia; "Oral Latin," at 
Leland Stanford ; " Sight Reading and Latin Speaking," at New 
York University. 



412 



College Teaching 



Use of 
modern 
literature 
in ancient 
Greek or 
Latin 



More than three hundred students have been enrolled thus 
far in a period of six or seven years, and some of these have 
testified that it was one of the most valuable courses they 
have had in any subject. One of the chief advantages 
has been that the students, while learning forms and vo- 
cabulary, are reading some real Greek, and that of first- 
rate quality.^ 

Various attempts have been made, especially in recent 
years, to provide for classical students modern stories 
in ancient Latin, in the belief that modern students will 
acquire a practical knowledge of the language more readily 
from such textbooks than from any parts of the ancient 
literature." The story of Robinson Crusoe was translated 
into Latin by G. F. Goffeaux, and this version has been 
edited and republished by Dr. Arcadius Avellanus, Phila- 
delphia, 1900 (173 pages). An abridgement of the orig- 
inal edition was edited by P. A. Barnett, under the title 
The Story of Robinson Crusoe in Latin, adapted from 
Defoe by Goffeaux, Longmans, Green and Co., 1907. 
Among original compositions in ancient Latin for students 
may be mentioned '(1) Ritchie's Fabulae Faciles, A First 
Latin Reader, edited by John Copeland Kirtland, Jr., of 
Phillips Exeter Academy, Longmans, Green & Co., 1903 
(134 pages) . (2) The Fables of Orbilius by A. D. Godley, 

1 See Professor Allen's article, " The First Year of Greek," in the 
Classical Journal, X (1915), pages 262-266. 

2 As early as the seventeenth century books were produced which may 
be regarded as the forerunners of this sort of modern composition in 
the ancient language. One of these was published in 1604 under the 
title : " locorum atque seriorum turn novorum tum selectorum atque 
memorabilium libri duo, recensente Othone Melandro." Another is 
the " Terentius Christianus sen Comoediae Sacrae — Terentiano stylo 
a Corn. Schonaeo Goudono conscriptae, editio nova Amstelodami 
1646": this includes dramas such as Naaman (princeps Syrus), 
Tobaeus (senex) , Saulus, luditha, Susanna, Ananias, etc. Still an- 
other is the " Poesis Dramatica Nicolai Amancini S. J.," in two 
parts, published in 1674 and 1675. A century later there appeared 
a story which, judging from its title, was designed primarily for stud- 
ents: " Joachimi Henrici Campe Robinson Secundus Tironum causa 
latine vertit Philippus Julius Lieberkiihn," Zullich, 1785. 



The Teaching of the Classics 413 

London, Edward Arnold, two small pamphlets, illustrated, 
containing short and witty stories for beginners. (3) Ora 
Maritima, A Latin Story for Beginners, by E. A. Sonnen- 
schein, seventh edition, 1908, London, Kegan, Paul and 
Co.; New York, The Macmillan Company (157 pages). 
This is the account of the experiences of some boys during 
a summer in Kent. (4) Pro Patria, A Latin Story for Be- 
ginners by Professor E. A. Sonnenschein, London, Swan, 
Sonnenschein and Co. ; New York, The Macmillan Company, 
1910 (188 pages). (5) Rex Aurei Rivi, auctore Johanne 
Ruskin, Latine inter pretatus est Arcadius Avellanus, Neo- 
ehoraci, 1914 (Published by E. P. Prentice). (6) F. G. 
Moore: Porta Latina, Fables of La Fontaine in a Latin 
Version, Ginn and Co., 1915. 

A series of translations of modern fiction is now being 
produced under the title of The Mount Hope Classics, pub- 
lished by Mr. E. P. Prentice, 37 Wall Street, New York 
City. The translator is Dr. Arcadius Avellanus. The first 
of these appeared in 1914 under the title Pericla Navarci 
Magonis, this being a translation of The Adventures of 
Captain Mago, or With a Phoenician Expedition, B. c. 1000, 
by Leon Cahun, Scribner's, 1889. The second volume, 
Mons Spes et Fahulae Aliae, a collection of short stories, 
was published in 1918. The third, Mysterium Arcae Boule, 
published in 1916, is the well-known Mystery of the Boule 
Cabinet by Mr. Burton Egbert Stevenson. The fourth, 
Fabulae Divales, published in 1918, is a collection of fairy 
stories for young readers to which is added a version of 
Ovid's Amor et Psyche. 

Over these books a lively controversy has arisen be- 
tween Dr. Avellanus and Mr. Charles H. Forbes, of Phillips 
Academy, Andover.^ Undoubtedly the translator's style and 
vocabulary are far from being strictly in accord with the 
present canons of classical Latin. He employs a multitude 
of words and idioms unfamiliar to those whose reading has 

^ See the Classical Journal, XI (1914), pages 25-32; Classical 
Weekly, IX (1915-16), pages 149-151; X (1916), pages 38 f.; Clas- 
sical Weekly, X (1916), pages 37 f. 



414 



College Teaching 



Courses in 
' ' Prose 
Composi- 
tion ' ' 



been confined to the masterpieces of the ancient literature 
which are most commonly studied. On the other hand, the 
ancient language is made in these books a medium of modern 
thought. The stories presented hold the attention, the 
vividness of the narrative captivates the reader and carries 
him through the obscurities of diction and of style to a 
wholly unexpected realization that Latin is a real language 
after all. 

It is a serious question whether students can ever ac- 
quire a mastery of a language, or even a sufficient knowledge 
of it really to appreciate its literature, unless they learn to 
use this language to express their own thoughts. But 
it is evident that it is impossible adequately to express 
modern ideas in the language of Caesar and Cicero. Those 
who would exclude the Latin of comparatively recent 
authors such as Erasmus from the canon of the Latin 
which may be taught, as well as those who confine their" 
teaching to the translation and parsing of certain texts, 
are raising the question whether the Latin language should 
be taught at all in modern times. 

Naturally less effort has been made to provide for students 
modern literature in ancient Greek. At least one such 
book, however, is available. The Greek War of Independ- 
ence, 1821-27, told in classical Greek for the use of be- 
ginners (with notes and exercises) by C. D, Chambers: 
published by Swan, Sonnenschein and Co. 

In nearly all American colleges courses in Greek and 
Latin composition are given, either as a means of mental 
training or in order to give a more complete mastery of 
these languages and a greater facility in reading the litera- 
ture. In some places, for example at the University of 
California, a series of courses is given in both Greek and 
Latin composition culminating in original compositions, 
translations of selections from modern literature, and con- 
versation in the ancient languages. Courses in Latin con- 
versation ^ are given in other places also, and courses in 
the pronunciation of ancient Greek and Latin. ^ 

1 See note 2, page 411. - Columbia. 



The Teaching of the Classics 415 

All such courses belong to the general field of the study 
of the classical languages as distinguished from the study 
of the literature, history, or any other phase of the classi- 
cal civilization. This branch of language study, of course, 
includes such purely linguistic courses as those in Com- 
parative Philology, Comparative Grammar, the Morphology 
of the Ancient Languages, Syntax, Dialects, etc. 

The bulk of classical teaching in American colleges is Courses in 
devoted to the literature. The great majority of all col- 
lege courses in Latin and Greek have the same general 
characteristics.^ A certain limited portion of text is as- 
signed for preparation. This text is then translated by 
the students in class, and the translation corrected. Gram- 
matical and exegetical questions and the content of the 
passage are discussed. Most of the time at each meeting 
of the class is consumed in such exercises. Generally lec- 
tures or informal talks are given by the instructor upon the 
life and personality of each author whose work is read, 
upon the life and thought of his times, upon the literary ac- 
tivity, as a whole, and upon the value of those selections 
from his works which are the subject of the course. Some- 
times the students are required to read more of the original 
literature than can be translated in class. Generally some 
collateral reading in English is assigned. Often the in- 
structor reads to the class, usually from the original, other 
portions of the ancient literature. 

The number and extent of such courses in the different 
institutions vary according to the strength of the faculty, 
the plan of the curriculum, and the number and demands 
of the students in each. In the main, however, the list of 
selections from the ancient literature presented in such 
courses in all the colleges is much the same. Many of 
these courses deal with one particular author and his works, 
such as Sophocles, Plato, Plautus, or Horace. Others deal 
with some particular kind of literature, such as Greek 

1 This is true of the courses in secondary schools and graduate courses 
in universities also; but in the secondary and graduate schools the 
proportion of translation courses to the others is smaller. 



416 



College Teaching 



Methods 

commonly 

pursued 



Value of 
sucli courses 



tragedy or oratory, Latin comedy, etc., or with a group of 
authors of different types combined for the sake of variety.^ 

The methods as well as the aims of such courses are well 
exemplified in the following passages contained in the 
Circular of Information for 1915-1916 of the University of 
Chicago, page 211: "Ability to read Greek with 
accuracy and ease, and intelligent enjoyment of the master- 
pieces of Greek literature are the indispensable prere- 
quisites of all higher Greek scholarship. All other inter- 
ests that may attach to the study are subordinate to these, 
and their pursuit is positively harmful if it prematurely 
distracts the student's attention from his main purpose." 

It is not immediately apparent what distinction is made 
here, if there is any, between the " prerequisites " and the 
" main purpose " of classical scholarship. What the chief 
aim of classical teaching is according to this view, however, 
is made clear by the two paragraphs which follow, as well 
as by the descriptions of the individual courses offered by 
the Chicago faculty. 

" In the work of the Junior Colleges the Department will 
keep this principle steadily in view, and will endeavor to 
teach a practical knowledge of Greek vocabulary and idiom, 
and to impart literary and historic culture by means of 
rapid viva voce translation and interpretation of the simpler 
masterpieces of the literature. ... In the Senior Colleges 
the chief stress will be laid on reading and exegesis, but the 
range of authors presented to the student's choice will be 
enlarged." 

The advantage of such courses is that they make the 
students who take them familiar with at least some limited 
portions of the best of the ancient literature in its original 
form, and most people are agreed that this is the only way 
in which students can be taught to appreciate that part of 
this literature, the value of which lies chiefly or wholly in 
its form. But people are not agreed upon two most serious 

1 For example, at Harvard one course includes Plato, Lysias, Lyric 
Poetry, and Euripides, with lectures on the history of Greek litera- 
ture; another Livy, Terence, Horace and other Latin Poets. 



these 
courses 



The Teaching of the Classics 417 

questions which arise in this connection. The first is 
whether all students are capable of appreciating at all litera- 
ture of this sort, especially when it is conveyed in an ancient 
and difficult language. The other question is how much 
of the classical literature really depends for its values 
chiefly upon its form. To say that the Psalms and the 
Gospels have no value or little value for the world apart 
from the original form and language in which they were 
written would, of course, be absurd. Is it any less absurd 
to say that the study of the Homeric poems, the Attic trage- 
dies, the works of Thucydides and Plato would have little 
value for students unless this literature were studied in 
the original language? These questions cannot properly 
be ignored any longer by teachers of the Classics. 

The defects of such courses are manifest to most per- Defects oi 
sons. Students who pursue these courses through most of 
the years of secondary school and college fail to acquire 
either such a knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages 
as would enable them to read with pleasure and profit 
a Greek or Latin book, or such a knowledge of the Greek 
and Roman literature and civilization as would enable them 
to appreciate the value of classical studies. Many of them 
graduate from college without even knowing that there 
is anything really worthy of their attention in the classical 
literatures. The fact stares the teachers of the Classics 
grimly in the face that they are not accomplishing the aims 
which they profess. 

One explanation of this fact suggests itself. In the clas- 
sical courses commonly given in American colleges the 
attention paid to the content of the literature, to the author 
and his times — the lectures and readings by the instruc- 
tor, the discussion of archaeological, historical, literary, and 
philosophical matters introduced into the course, — distract 
attention from the study of the language itself, and check 
this study before a real mastery of the language has been 
secured. On the other hand, the time and still more the 
attention devoted in these courses to the mere process of 
translation detracts from the appreciation of the literature 



418 



College Teaching 



Courses not 

requiring 

knowledge 

of the 

ancient 

languages 



and obstructs the study of the life and thought. In attempt- 
ing to accomplish both purposes in these courses the 
teachers fail to accomplish either, and the result is chiefly 
a certain mental training, the practical value of which de- 
pends largely upon the mental capacity and skill of each 
individual teacher, and is not readily appreciated. 

To obviate some of these defects, and also to provide 
courses on Greek and Roman culture for those unfamiliar 
with the ancient languages, courses which require no use 
of these languages are now given at various colleges on 
Classical Literature or Civilization.^ A course on the 
" Greek Epic " at the University of California is described 
as follows: " A study chiefly of the Iliad and the Odyssey; 
their form, origin, and content; Homeric and pre-Homeric 
Aegean civilizations; relative merits of modern transla- 
tions; influence of the Homeric poems on the later Greek, 
Roman, and modern literature. Lectures (partly illus- 
trated), assigned readings, discussions, and reports." The 
course at Harvard entitled " Survey of Greek Civilization " 
is " A lecture course, with written tests on a large body of 
private reading (mostly in English). No knowledge of 
Greek is required beyond the terms which must necessarily 
be learned to understand the subject." "The prescribed 
reading includes translations of Greek authors as well as 
rnodern books on Greek life and thought." The lecturer 
frequently reads and comments upon selections from the 
ancient literature. At Brown University a course is given 
on Greek Civilization, including the following topics: 
I Topography of Greece, II Prehistoric Greece, III The 
Language, IV Early Greece (The Makers of Homer, Expan- 
sion of Greece, Tyrannies, The New Poetry, etc.), V The 
Transition Century, 600-500 B.C. ((a) Government and 
Political Life, {h) Literature, (c) art), VI The Classical 
Epoch, 500-338 B.C. {{a) Political and Military History, 
(6) Literature, (c) The Fine Arts), VII The Hellenistic 
and Graeco-Roman Periods, {{a) History, [b) Literature, 
(c) Philosophy, {d) Learning and Science, (e) Art), VIII 
^ See above, page 407 f. 



The Teaching of the Classics 419 



The Sequel of Greek History (The Byzantine Empire, the 
Italian Renaissance, Mediaeval and Modern Greece). This 
is described as "Wholly a lecture course, with frequent 
written tests, examination of the notebooks, and a final ex- 
amination on the whole. Definite selections of the most 
conspicuous authors are required in English translations." 
The lecturer also reads selections from Homer, the Greek 
drama, Pindar, etc. Similar courses on Roman civiliza- 
tion are given at both Brown and Harvard. There is also 
a course of fifteen lectures on " Greek Civilization " at 
Vermont ; " The Culture History of Rome, lectures with 
supplementary reading in English," at Washington Uni- 
versity; "Greek Civilization, lectures and collateral read- 
ing on the political institutions, the art, religion, and scien- 
tific thought of ancient Greece in relation to modern civili- 
zation," at Wesleyan; "The Role of the Greeks in Civili- 
zation " at Wisconsin.^ 

Whatever success such courses may have, they are open 
to one criticism. Most, if not all of them, appear to be 
primarily lecture courses, with more or less collateral 
reading controlled by tests and examinations. The experi- 
ence of many, however, justifies to some extent the belief that 
college students derive little benefit from collateral reading 
controlled only in this way, because such reading is com- 
monly most superficial. Little mental training, therefore, 
is involved in courses such as those just described, and the 
ideas which the students acquire in them are chiefly those 
given to them by others. And it may reasonably be doubted 
whether the value to the students of ideas received in this 
way is comparable to the value of those which they are led 
to discover for themselves. So far, then, as such courses 
fail to accomplish the purposes for which they were de- 
signed, their failure may be due wholly to this cause. 

It is entirely possible to conceive of courses in which 
no use of the ancient languages would be required, but in 
which the students would acquire by their own efforts a 

^ For a fuller list of institutions where classical courses not requiring 
a knowledge of the ancient languages are given see above, page 407. 



Defects of 
the lecture 
system 



The study 
of litera- 
ture apart 
from its 
original 
language 



420 College Teaching 

knowledge of the classical literature and civilization far 
more extensive and more satisfying than in courses largely 
devoted to translating from Greek and Latin. Such courses 
would not merely substitute English translations for the 
originals, and treat these translations as the originals are 
treated in courses of the traditional type; the ancient litera- 
ture would be studied in the same way as English litera- 
ture is studied. For example, in a course of this kind on 
Greek literature, in dealing with the Odyssey the students 
would discuss in class, or present written reports upon, the 
composition of the poem as a whole, and the relation to 
the main plot of different episodes such as the quest of 
Telemachus, his visit to Pylos and Lacedaemon, the scene in 
Calypso's cave, the building of the raft, the arrival of 
Odysseus among the Phaeacians, his account of his own ad- 
ventures, his return to Ithaca, the slaying of the wooers, 
etc.; also the characters of the poem, their individual ex- 
periences and behavior in various circumstances, and the 
ideas which they express, comparing these characters and 
ideas with those of modern times. In dealing with the 
drama, the students would study the composition of each 
play, present its plot in narrative form, and criticize it 
from the dramatic as well as from the literary standpoint; 
they would discuss the characters and situations, and the 
ideas embodied in each.^ In dealing with Thucydides they 
would discuss the plan of his book and the artistic ele- 
ments in its composition; also the critical standards of 
the author, his methods, his objectivity, and his personal 
bias. They would study the debates in which the arguments 
on both sides of great issues are presented, expressing 
their own opinions on the questions involved. They would 
study the great descriptions, such as the account of the 
siege of Plataea, the plague at Athens, the last fight in the 
harbor of Syracuse, making a summary in their own lan- 

^ " Die hochste Aufgabe bei der Lektiire des griechischen Dramas sei 
das Stiick Leben, das uns der Dichter vor Augen fiihrt, in seinem 
vollen Inhalt miterleben zu lassen." C. Wunderer, in Blatter fiir 
das Gymnasial-Schulwesen, Vol. LII (1916), 1. 



The Teaching of the Classics 421 



guage of the most essential or effective details. Lastly they 
would discuss such figures as Pericles, Nicias and Alcibi- 
ades, Archidamus, Brasidas and Hermocrates, their charac- 
ters, principles, and motives. In dealing with Plato they 
would study the character of Socrates and those ideas con- 
tained in the Platonic dialogues which can be most readily 
comprehended by college students. 

The study of "The Classics" is not properly confined 
to the Greek and Latin literatures: it includes the military, 
political, social, and economic history of the ancient Greeks 
and Romans, their institutions, their religion, morals, phi- 
losophy, science, art, and private life. The geography and 
topography of ancient lands, anthropology and ethnology, 
archaeology and epigraphy contribute to its material. It 
is not necessary that all these subjects be taught by mem- 
bers of a classical department. In particular it is the 
common practice in this country to relegate the study of 
ancient philosophy to the Department of Philosophy, where- 
as in England and on the Continent such distinctions between 
departments are not recognized. But certainly these 
branches of the study of the classical civilization should 
be taught best by those most familiar with the classical 
civilization in all its phases, and most thoroughly trained 
in the interpretation and criticism of its literature. It is 
also obvious that the teaching of the classical literature 
would be emasculated if it were separated from these other 
subjects mentioned. Only, such subjects as history should 
not be taught from the literary point of view. History 
should be an account of what actually took place, derived 
from every available source and not from a synthesis of a 
literary tradition. In this respect the teachers of the Clas- 
sics have from the earliest times made the most serious 
mistakes. To some extent the same charges may be brought 
against the methods and traditions of the teachers of mod- 
ern history. The teaching of Greek and Roman history, 
however, is affected in a peculiar degree by the traditions 
of classical scholarship. The historical courses given by 
most classical teachers are based upon the translation and 



Classical 
studies not 
confined to 
the ancient 
authors 



422 



College Teaching 



Summary of 
objects to be 
sought in 
the teaching 
of the 
classics 



discussion of the works of certain ancient authors, whose 
accounts are not only false and misleading in many re- 
spects, but characteristically omit those factors in the 
ancient life which are the most significant and interesting 
to the modern world. Such courses begin by implanting 
false impressions which no amount of explanation can 
eradicate. The ancient world, therefore, is made to appear 
to modern students unreal and unworthy of serious attention : 
it is not strange that they are dissatisfied with such teach- 
ing, and that it seems to many practically worthless. A 
true picture of the life and experience of the ancient Greeks 
and Romans would appear both interesting and profitable 
to a normal college student. 

The aims of the teaching of the Classics in American 
colleges should be to give, in addition to a training of the 
mind : 

1. An appreciation of the best of the classical literature. 
For this is, in many respects, the best literature which we 
have at all, even when without any allowances it is com- 
pared with the best of modern literatures. Much of it is 
universal in character. It is also the foundation of the 
modern literatures. By learning to appreciate it, students 
would learn to judge and appreciate all literature. 

2. A familiarity with the characters and narratives of 
the ancient literature. The knowledge of these characters, 
their behavior under various vicissitudes of fortune, and 
their experiences, would of itself be a valuable possession 
and equipment for life. 

3. A knowledge of the ideas of the ancient Greeks and 
Romans, revealed and developed in their literature, and 
tested in the realities of their life. Many of these ideas are 
of the utmost value today, and are in danger of being 
overlooked and forgotten in this materialistic age of ours, 
unless they are constantly recalled to our minds by such 
studies. 

4. A knowledge of the actual experiences of the ancients, 
as individuals and as nations, their experiments in democ- 
racy and other forms of government, in imperialism, arbi- 



The Teaching of the Classics 423 

tration, and the like, their solutions of the moral, social, 
and economic problems which were as prominent in their 
world as in ours. 

To realize these aims old methods should be revised 
and improved, new methods developed. For there can 
hardly be a study more valuable and practical than this. 

William K. Prentice 

Princeton University 



XXI 



The college 
course must 
emphasize 
power, not 
facts 



The college 
can attain 
its aim only 
when the 
student 
brings 
necessary 
facts from 
secondary 
schools 



THE TEACHING OF THE ROMANCE 
LANGUAGES 

IT is well at times to emphasize old truths, mainly be- 
cause they are old and are consecrated by experience. 
One of these, frequently combated nowadays, is that any 
college course — worthy of the name — has other than 
utilitarian ends. I therefore declare my belief that the 
student does not go to college primarily to acquire facts. 
These he can learn from books or from private instruction. 
Me judice — he goes to college primarily to learn how to 
interpret facts, and to arrive through this experience at 
their practical as well as their theoretic value: as respects 
himself, as respects others, and in an ever widening circle 
as regards humanity in general. The first object, thus, 
of a college course is to humanize the individual, to eman- 
cipate him intellectually and emotionally from his pre- 
judices and conventions by giving him a wider horizon, a 
sounder judgment, a firmer and yet a more tolerant point 
of view. " Our proclivity to details," said Emerson, " can- 
not quite degrade our life and divest it of poetry." The 
college seizes upon the liberating instinct of youth and 
utilizes it for all it is worth. We summarize by saying 
that . the college prepares not merely for " life " but for 
" living " ; so that the society whom the individual serves 
will be served by him loyally, intelligently, and broad- 
mindedly, with an increasing understanding of its aims and 
purposes. 

This, let us assume, is the somewhat lofty ideal. What 
about its concrete realization? Especially when the sub- 
ject is a language, which, considering that it consists of 
parts of speech, inflections, phonetics, etc., is a very prac- 
tical matter and apparently far removed from the ideal in 
question. Every language teacher is familiar with this 
stock objection. How often has he not been told that his 

424 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 425 

business is not to teach French culture or Spanish life, 
but French and Spanish? And as everybody knows, French 
and Spanish are not learned in a day, nor, indeed,, if we 
judge by the average graduate of our colleges, in four years 
of classroom work. It is not my purpose to combat the 
contention that college French or Spanish or Italian could 
be taught better, and that from a utilitarian point of view 
the subject is capable of a great deal of improvement. As 
Professor Grandgent has trenchantly said : " I do not be- 
lieve there is or ever was a language more difficult to acquire 
than French; most of us can name worthy persons who 
have been assiduously struggling with it from childhood 
to mature age, and who do not know it now: yet it is 
treated as something any one can pick up offhand. . . . 
French staggers under the fearful burden of apparent easi- 
ness." I do not think these words overstate the case. All 
the more reason, then, to bear in mind that the burden 
of this accomplishment should not fall on the college course 
alone, or, I should even say, on the college course at all. 
For the fact is that a thorough knowledge of the Romance 
tongues cannot be acquired in any college course, and to 
attack the problem from that angle alone is to attempt the 
impossible. It is on the school, and not on the college, that 
the obligation of the practical language problem rests. 
If our students are to become proficient in French — in 
the sense that they can not only read it but write and 
speak it with passable success — the language must be begun 
early, in the grade school (when memory and apperception 
are still fresh), and then carried forward systematically over 
a period of from six to seven years. But this will require 
on the part of our schools: (1) a longer time allotment 
to the subject than it now generally has, (2) a closer articu- 
lation between the grade-school, high-school, and college 
courses, and (3) the appointment of better and higher-paid 
teachers of the subject. An encouraging move is being 
made in many parts of the country to carry out this plan, 
though of course we are still a long way from its reali- 
zation ; and when it is realized we shall not yet have reached 



426 



College Teaching 



Limitations 
of elementa- 
ry and inter- 
mediate 
courses as 
college 
courses 



Aim of the 
teaching of 
Romance 
languages in 
the college 



the millennium. But at least we shall have given the prac- 
tical teaching of the subject a chance, comparable to the 
opportunity it has in Europe; and the complaint against 
the French and Spanish teacher — if there still be a chronic 
complaint — will have other grounds than the one we so 
commonly hear at present. 

In the meantime, let us remember that the college has 
other, and more pressing, things to do than to attempt to 
supply the shortcomings of the school. It is certainly es- 
sential that the college should continue and develop the 
practical work of the school in various ways, such as ad- 
vanced exercises and lectures in the foreign idiom, special 
conversation classes, and the like — if only for the simple 
reason that a language that is not uBed soon falls into desue- 
tude and is forgotten. But assuredly the so-called elemen- 
tary, intermediate, and advanced courses in French and 
Spanish (as given in college) do not fall under that head. 
They exist in the college by tolerance rather than by sound 
pedagogical theory, and the effort now being made to force 
all such courses back into the school by reducing the college 
" credits " they give is worthy of undivided support. Not 
only are they out of place in the college program, but the 
burden of numerous and often large " sections " in these 
courses has seriously impeded the college in its proper 
language work. The college in its true function is the 
clarifier of ideas, the correlator of facts, the molder of 
personalities; and the student of modern languages should 
enter college prepared to study his subject from the college 
point' of view. Much of the apparent " silliness " of the 
French class which our more virile undergraduates object 
to would be obviated if a larger percentage of them could 
at once enter upon the more advanced phases of the subject. 
It is, then, to their interest, to the interest of the subject, 
and to the advantage of the college concerned, that this 
reform be brought about. 

In any case, the function of a college subject can be 
stated, as President Meiklejohn has stated it, in terms of 
two principles. He says: "The first is shared by both 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 427 

liberal and technical teaching. The second applies to 
liberal education alone. The principles are these: (1) 
that activity guided by ideas is on the whole more success- 
ful than the same activity without the control of ideas, and 
(2) that in the activities common to all men the guidance 
of ideas is quite as essential as in the case of those which 
different groups of men carry on in differentiation from 
one another." As applied to the Romance languages, this 
means that while the college must of course give " techni- 
cal " instruction in language, the emphasis of that instruc- 
tion should be upon the " ideas " which the language ex- 
presses, in itself and in its literature. It is not enough 
that the college student should gain fluency in French or 
Spanish, he must also and primarily be made conscious 
of the processes of language, its logical and aesthetic values, 
the civilization it expresses, and the thoughts it has to 
convey. While it may be said that all thorough language 
instruction accomplishes this incidentally, the college 
makes this the aim of its teaching. The college should 
furnish an objective appraisal of the fundamental elements 
of the foreign idiom, not merely a subjective (and often 
superficial) mastery of details. For the old statement re- 
mains true that — when properly studied — " proverbs, 
words, and grammar inflections convey the public sense 
with more purity and precision than the wisest in- 
dividual "; ^ and what shall we say when "literature" is 
added to this list? 

From these preliminary observations let us now turn to status of 
r Tt 1 • c Romance 

the present status of Romance languages in some of our languages 

representative colleges." One gratifying fact may be g^ntat^i^^ 

noted at once. Whereas a quarter of a century ago Greek colleges — 

and Latin were still considered the sine qua non of a 

liberal education, today French and German, and to a 

lesser extent Spanish and Italian, have their legitimate 

share in this distinction. Indeed, to judge merely by the 

^ The quotation is from Emerson, Nominalist and Realist. 
~ I make no attempt in this article, written before 1917, to treat 
actual teaching conditions: the premises are too uncertain. 



428 College Teaching 

number of students, they would seem to have replaced 
Latin and Greek. To be sure, several colleges, as for in- 
stance Amherst and Chicago, alarmed by this swing of the 
pendulum, have reserved the B.A. degree for the traditional 
classical discipline. But in the first case the entire cur- 
riculum includes "two years of Greek or Latin," and in 
the second the B.A. students comprise but a very small 
percentage of the college body; and while in both cases 
Latin and Greek are required subjects, Romance is ad- 
mitted as an elective, in which — to mention only Am- 
herst — six consecutive semester courses, covering the main 
phases of modern French literature, can be chosen. As 
noted, the recognition of modern languages as cultural 
subjects is relatively recent. As late as 1884 a commis- 
sion, appointed by the Modern Language Association, 
found that " few colleges have a modern language re- 
quirement for admission to the course in arts; ... of 
the fifty reported, three require French, two offer an elec- 
tion between French and German, and two require both 
French and German." And of these same colleges, 
" eighteen require no foreign language, twenty-nine re- 
quire either French or German, and eighteen require both 
French and German, for graduation in the arts." 

Obviously, few (at most seven) of the colleges ex- 
amined admitted students prepared to take advanced 
courses in French; and only eighteen, or 36 per cent, al- 
lowed students to begin French in the freshman year, 
over one half of the entire number postponing the be- 
ginners' French until the sophomore, junior, or even senior 
year. It is clear, therefore, that as late as 1864, and in 
spite of such illustrious examples as that set by Harvard 
in the appointment of Ticknor to the Smith professor- 
ship in 1816, the Romance languages could hardly be 
classed as a recognized college subject. At best, they 
were taught on the principles that " it is never too late to 
learn," and although this teaching failed from the 
" practical " point of view, it yet had little or no op- 
portunity to concern itself with the cultural aspects of the 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 429 

subject. No wonder the commission reported ^ that in 
the circumstances " a mastery of language, as well as a 
comprehensive study of the literature, is impossible." 
With the part played by our Greek and Latin col- 
leagues in keeping the modern languages out of the cur- 
riculum we need not deal in detail here. It is enough, 
in order to explain their attitude, to observe that previous 
to 1884 the teaching of modern languages was generally 
poor: it was intrusted for the most part to foreigners, who, 
being usually ignorant of the finer shades of English and 
woefully ignorant of American students, could not have 
been expected to succeed, or to native Americans, who 
for various and often excellent reasons lacked the proper 
training, and therefore succeeded — when in rare cases 
they did succeed — in spite of their qualifications rather 
than because of them. Add to all this the conviction 
natural to every classicist, that Latin and Greek are the 
keys to all Western civilization and that without them 
Romance literatures (not to say " languages ") are incom- 
prehensible, and the situation up to the 90's is amply clear. 

Today, then, conditions are chanared, and for better or Contempo- 
V Ti .11 rary status 

worse the Komance tongues are on a par with other of Romance 

collegiate subjects. A glance at the latest statistics is in- ^n"o2ef^^ 
structive. In 1910, out of 340 colleges and universities curricula 
in the United States, 328 taught French; 112 (the universi- 
ties) offered more than four years' instruction, 50 offered 
four years, 90 three years, 68 two years, and only 8 one 
year. The present status can easily be divined: the in- 
terest in Spanish has certainly not waned, while the inter- 
est in French has grown by leaps and bounds. Some 
curtailment there has been, owing to the adoption of the 
" group system " of studies on the part of most of the 
colleges, and as the colleges are relieved of more and more 
of the elementary work there doubtless will be more. But, 
in any case, it is safe to say that French, Spanish, and 

1 The above statistics are from C. H. Handschin, The Teaching of 
Modern Languages in the United States, Washington, 1913, pages 
40fiF. 



430 College Teaching 

Italian are now firmly installed as liberal studies in the 
curricula of most of our colleges. Now, how do they ful- 
fill this function? What changes will be necessary in 
order that they may fulfill it better? What particular 
advantages have they to offer as a college subject? A 
brief consideration of each of these points follows. 

In general, our colleges require fifteen units of entrance 
credit and about twenty collegiate units for the college 
degree.^ Of the entrance units, a maximum of four in 
French and two in Spanish is allowed; and of the college 
units, an average of five, or about one fourth of the en- 
tire college work,^ must be taken consecutively in one 
department of study or in not more than two departments. 
This last group of approximately five units thus con- 
stitutes, so to speak, the backbone of the student's work. 
It is his so-called "principal sequence" (Chicago) or his 
" two majors " (Amherst) or his " major subject " (Wis- 
consin and Colorado) ; and while in the case of Amherst 
it cannot be begun " until after the freshman year," in 
general it must be begun by the junior year. Consider- 
able variety prevails, of course, in carrying out this idea; 
for example, Johns Hopkins requires " at least two courses 
in the major and at least two in some cognate subject." 
Harvard states that " every student shall take at least six 
of his courses in some one department, or in one of the 

^I cite the following figures: {a) Entrance: Harvard 16^, Amherst 
14; Wisconsin 14, Columbia 14%, Colorado 15, Illinois 15, Chicago 
15; ib) Collegiate Degree: Harvard 17% "courses," Amherst 20 
" courses," Wisconsin 120 " credits," Columbia 124 " points," Col- 
orado 120 " hours of scholastic work," Chicago 36 " trimester ma- 
jors." It is certainly desirable that our colleges adopt some uniform 
system for the notation of their courses. Johns Hopkins, at least, is 
specific in explaining the relationship of its " 125 points " to its 
"courses"; see page 262 of the University Register , 1916. 

2 At Chicago exactly ^^4 or " at least 9 coherent and progressive 
majors " must be taken in " one department or in a group of depart- 
ments." But Chicago also requires a secondary sequence of at least 
6 majors ; Columbia requires three years of " sequential study — in 
each of two departments." Illinois, " a major subject (20 hours) " 
and "an allied minor subject (20 hours)." 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 431 

recognized fields of distinction." Princeton demands of 
" every junior and senior ... at least two 3-hour courses 
in some one department." But almost all representative col- 
leges now recognize four general groups of study: 
Philosophy (including history), language, science, and 
mathematics; and the student's work must be so arranged 
that while it is fairly evenly distributed over three of the 
groups it is at the same time definitely concentrated in one 
of them. 

In answer to our first question, it follows that the student Normal pre- 
entering with the maximum of French should be able, be- a Romance 
fore graduation, to get enough advanced courses to give language 
him an intelligent grasp of the literature as well as the 
language. In our better-equipped colleges this is undoubt- 
edly the case. Harvard, for instance, would admit him 
to a course (French 2) in French Prose and Poetry, 
which includes some " composition," to be followed by 
(6) a General View of French Literature, (8) French 
Literature in the Eighteenth Century, (9) French Litera- 
ture in the Seventeenth Century, (16) Comedy of 
Manners in France, (17) Literary Criticism in France; 
and in some of these courses the linguistic aspects would 
be considered in the form of " themes," " reports," etc., 
while the student could choose (5) Advanced French Com- 
position for that special purpose. Other colleges (e. g., 
Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Stanford) offer the same or 
similar opportunities. So that, although titles of courses 
are often deceptive, the general plan of offering (1) an 
introductory course in which both the language and the 
literature are treated, (2) a survey-course in literature, 
leading to (3) various courses in literature after 1600, 
and supported by (4) at least one specific course in 
language, now constitutes the normal collegiate " major " 
in French; and, on the whole, it w^ould be difficult in the 
present circumstances to devise a better plan. 

It is obvious that the success of any plan depends on the 
thoroughness with which it is carried out, and this in turn 
depends on the qualifications and energy of those who have 



432 



College Teaching 



Changes in 
current 
practice 
that will 
enhance ef- 
fectiveness 
of teaching 
of Bromance 
Languages 
— Danger 
of minimiz- 
ing the 
language 
phase 



the matter in hand. That contingency does not concern us 
here. But what is worth noting is that the fourth point 
mentioned above, — the specific language part of the 
" major " — might be strengthened, especially since some ex- 
cellent institutions omit this consideration entirely. The 
danger of falling between two stools is never greater, it 
seems, than in treating both language and literature. An 
instructor who is bent on elucidating the range of Anatole 
France's thought naturally has little time to deal 
adequately with his rich vocabulary, his deft use of tense, 
the subtle structure of his phrase — and yet who can be 
said really to " know " such an author if he be ignorant 
of either side of his work? "Thought expands but 
lames," said Goethe — unless it is constantly controlled by 
fact. In order to give the undergraduate that control, 
it is essential that he should be placed in the position 
everywhere to verify his author's thought. How difficult 
it is to bring even the best of our undergraduates to this 
point I need not discuss. But at least once in the process 
of his work he might be held to a stricter account than 
elsewhere. And if we ask ourselves by what method this 
can best be accomplished, I believe the answer is hy some 
special course in which the language of several representa- 
tive writers is treated as such.^ The point could be 
elaborated, particularly in view of the present-day tendency 
to dwell unduly on so-called realia, French daily life, and 
the like — all legitimate enough in their proper time and 
place. But enough has been said to show that excellent 
as the present plan is, it could without detriment enlarge 
the place given to linguistics. In this bewildered age of 
ours we are forever hearing the cry of " literature," more 
" literature " : not only our students but our teachers — and 
the connection is obvious — find language study dull and 
uninspiring, oblivious to the fact that the fault is theirs 

^ An excellent manner of procedure is that outlined by Professor 
Terracher in his interesting article i] the Compte rendu du Congres 
de Langue et de Litterature Frangaise, New York (Federation de 
TAlliance Frangaise), 1913. 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 433 

and not the subject's. Yet, as we observed above, French 
is " hard," and its grammatical structure, apparently so 
simple, is in truth very complicated. Manifestly, to under- 
stand a foreign literature we must understand the language 
in which it is written. How few of our students really do! 
Moreover, language and literature are ultimately only parts 
of one indivisible entity: Philology — though the fact 
often escapes us. " The most effective work," said Gilder- 
sleeve,^ " is done by those who see all in the one as well 
as one in the all." And strange as it appears to the laity, 
a linguistic fact may convey a universal lesson. I hesitate 
to generalize, but I believe most of our colleges need to 
emphasize the language side of the French " major " more. 

As for Italian and Spanish, few of the colleges as yet i^eiftive 
grant these subjects the importance given to French. For French, 

one reason, entrance credit in Italian is extremely rare, ^f^^^^^' ^"^ 

-' ' Italian in a 

and neither there nor in Spanish, in which it is now rather college 
common, owing to the teaching of Spanish in the high *^°"^^® 
schools, does it exceed two units. Some work of an ele- 
mentary nature must therefore be done in the college; in- 
deed, at Amherst neither language can be begun until the 
sophomore year — though fortunately this is an isolated 
case. Further, even when the college is prepared to teach 
these subjects adequately, it is still a debatable question 
whether they are entitled to precisely the same considera- 
tion as their more venerable sister. It is unnecessary to 
point out that such great names as Dante, Petrarch, Boccac- 
cio, Alfieri, Leopardi, Carducci, Cervantes, Calderon, Lope 
de Vega, Benavente, e tutti quanti, are abundant evidence of 
the value of Italian and Spanish culture. They unquestion- 
ably are. Where the emphasis is cultural, it would cer- 
tainly be unwise to neglect Italian, since the Renaissance 
is Italian and underlies modern European culture in gen- 
eral. On the other hand, Spanish is, so to speak, at our 
very doors because of our island possessions: it is the one 
foreign language which' calls for no argument to make 
the undergraduate willing to learn to speak, and Spanish 

^ From Johns Hopkins University Circular, No. 151. 



434 College Teaching 

literature, especially in the drama, has the same romantic 
freedom as English literature and is thus readily ac- 
cessible to the American type of mind. Pedagogically, 
thus, the question is far from simple. But while it is im- 
possible to lay down any fixed precept, it seems worth 
while to remember: that the French genius is preeminently 
the vehicle of definite and clear ideas, that in a very real 
sense France has been and is the intellectual clearing- 
house of the world, and that potentially, at least, her civili- 
zation is of the greatest value to our intellectually dull and 
undiscriminating youth. From French, better than from 
Italian and Spanish, he can learn the discipline of accurate 
expression, of clear articulation, and the enlightenment 
that springs from contact with " general ideas." More- 
over, we must not forget that the undergraduate's time is 
limited and that under the " group system " some discrim- 
ination must necessarily be made. Granted, then, that, all 
things considered, the first place will doubtless be left to 
French, the question remains whether the attention given 
to Spanish and Italian is at least adequate. And do the 
colleges extract from them the values they should? 

As a general proposition, we may take it for granted 
that the college should offer at least four units in each of 
these subjects. For Spanish, certainly, the tendency will 
be to make the proportion larger. But two units devoted to 
learning the language and two devoted to the literature 
may be regarded as essential, and are as a matter of fact 
the common practice. Several illustrations will make this 
clear. Johns Hopkins offers: in Italian, 1. Grammar, 
Short Stories, etc., 2. Grammar, Written Exercises, Selec- 
tions from classic authors. Lectures on Italian Literature; 
in Spanish, 1. Grammar, Oral and written exercises, Read- 
ing from Alarcon, Valdes, etc., 2. Contemporary Novel 
and Drama, Oral practice. Grammar and Composition, 3. 
The Classic Drama and Cervantes, oral practice, etc., 
History of Spanish Literature, lilinois: in Italian, la-lb 
Elementary Course, 2a-2b Italian Literature, nineteenth 
century; in Spanish, la-lb Elementary Course, 2a-2b 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 435 

Modern Spanish, 3a-3b Introduction to Spanish Literature, 
4a-4b Business Correspondence and Conversation, 5a-5b 
Business Practice in Spanish, lla-llb The Spanish Drama 
of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, 17a-17b The 
Spanish Drama of the Nineteenth Century. Harvard: in 
Italian, 1. Italian Grammar, reading and composition, 4. 
General View of Italian Literature, 5. Modern Italian 
Literature, 2. Italian Literature of the Fifteenth and Six- 
teenth Centuries, 10. The Works of Dante; in Spanish, 
1. Spanish Grammar, reading and composition, 7. Spanish 
Composition, 8. Spanish Composition and Conversation 
(advanced course), 4. General View of Spanish Literature, 
5. Spanish Prose and Poetry of the Eighteenth and Nine- 
teenth Centuries, 2. Spanish Literature of the Sixteenth and 
Seventeenth Centuries.^ 

Since Spanish and Italian fall into the department of 
Romance languages, in order to make up his " major " 
the student is at present compelled to combine them with 
French. On the whole, this arrangement appears to me 
wise. To be sure, the deans of our colleges of commerce 
and administration will say that, granting the greater cul- 
tural value of French, the business interests of the country 
will force us nevertheless to give Spanish the same place 
in the curriculum as French. And the more radical edu- 
cators will affirm with Mr. Flexner : ^ " Languages have 
no value in themselves; they exist solely for the purpose 
of communicating ideas and abbreviating our thought and 
action processes. If studied, they are valuable only in so far 
as they are practically mastered — not otherwise." I have 
taken a stand against this matter-of-fact conception of edu- 
cation throughout this chapter. I may now return to the 

1 It will be noted that throughout the amount offered in Spanish ex- 
ceeds that in Italian. This is to be expected in view of the boom 
in Spanish studies. Moreover, most colleges now allow two units 
of entrance credit in Spanish, and 7 and 8 above, under Harvard, 
are half courses, Columbia is, I believe, the only college accepting 
2 units of entrance credit in Italian; but I have not examined the 
catalogues of all our colleges. 

2 Publications of the General Education Board, 3, 1916, page 13. 



436 



College Teaching 



Training 
teachers of 
Romance 
Languages 



charge by adding that the banality of our college students' 
thinking stares us in the face; if we wish to quicken it, 
to refine it, we should have them study other media of ex- 
pression qua expression besides their own (that is what 
Europe did in the Renaissance, and the example of the 
Renaissance is still pertinent) ; that if Mr. Flexner's reason- 
ing were valid the French might without detriment convey 
their "ideas" in Volapiik or Ido (I suggest that Mr. Flex- 
ner subject Anatole France to this test) ; and that in- 
stead of being valueless in themselves, on the contrary, 
languages are the repositories of the ages: "We infer," 
said Emerson, " the spirit of the nation in great measure 
from the language, which is a sort of monument in which 
each forcible individual in the course of many hundred 
years has contributed a stone." In other words, however 
great the claim of Spanish as " a practical subject " may 
be and whatever concessions our schools and colleges 
may make to this fact, I still believe that Spanish should be 
subordinated as a college subject to the study of French. 
In principle we may admit the Spanish "major," as in 
fact we do at present with the Italian "major"; but some 
knowledge of French on the part of the student should be 
presupposed, or if not, it should be a required part of the 
Spanish sequence. This may seem extreme, but in reality 
few students would wish to proceed far in Spanish with- 
out some French, and, practically, the knowledge of one 
Romance tongue is always a great aid in the study of 
another. 

Thus we see that, with the addition here and there of 
an extra course (where the college is not up to the standard 
as we have outlined it), and an added stress on the ad- 
vanced linguistics, the present curriculum in Romance ap- 
parently provides an excellent working basis. If properly 
carried out — and the success of all teaching depends 
of course ultimately on the teacher — it ought to fulfill all 
legitimate needs, so far as the strictly collegiate aims are 
concerned. 

A word is now in order as to its fitness for those students 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 437 

who are planning to take Romance as a profession. Nor- 
mally these students would coincide with those who are tak- 
ing up " special honors " in Romance languages ; and for the 
latter group most of our colleges now make special pro- 
vision — in the form of " independent work done outside 
the regular courses in the major subject and at least one 
other department during the junior and senior year (Wis- 
consin)," or as Amherst states it, "special work involving 
collateral reading or investigation under special condi- 
tions." In general, this gives the candidate certain profes- 
sional options among the courses listed (in cases where the 
college is part of the university) as " primarily for gradu- 
ates." In this way the student is able to add to his 
"major" such subjects as Old French (Chicago), Intro- 
duction to Romance Philology (Columbia), Practical 
Phonetics (Chicago), a Teachers' Course (Wisconsin), 
etc. Personally I am of the opinion that the day has 
passed when any of our graduates who has not at least 
a Master's degree in Romance should be recommended to a 
teaching position. But evidently any such hard and fast 
rule is bound to be unfair, especially since a large per- 
centage of our students is compelled to earn a living im- 
mediately upon graduation. Thus here again — as in the 
elementary courses as now given in the colleges — we are 
confronted with a makeshift which only time and continued 
effort can correct. In the meantime the value of such pro- 
fessional courses depends to a very marked degree upon 
the success with which they can be carried out: where they 
are counted toward a higher degree (M.A. or Ph.D.) the 
difficulty is not so great, since their introductory nature is 
self-evident; but where they conclude, so to speak, the 
student's formal training the difficulty of making them " fit 
in " is often sadly apparent. At any rate, in this border- 
land between cultural and professional studies, where the 
college is merging with the university or professional 
school, the necessity for the able teacher is a paramount 
issue. If the transition is to be successful, the obligation 
rests upon the teacher so to develop his subject that the 



438 



College Teaching 



Final con- 
tributions 
of Eomance 
Languages 
to the 
American 
college 
student 



specializing will not drown out the general interest but 
will inform it with those values which only the specialist 
can impart. 

And now as to our final consideration: What partic- 
ular advantages have the Romance tongues to offer as a 
college subject? An obvious advantage is: an understand- 
ing of foreign peoples. The Romance languages are 
modern. They are spoken today over a large part of the 
habitable globe. We stand in direct relations with those 
who speak them and write them. Above all, a large share 
of the world's best thought is being expressed in them. 
The point requires no arguing, that translations cannot take 
the place of originals: traduttore traditore, says an ex- 
cellent Italian proverb. If we are really to know what 
other nations think, — whether we accept or reject their 
thought makes little or no difference here, — we can do so 
only by knowing their language. And the better we know 
it, the greater our insight will be. To speak at least one 
foreign language is not only a parlor accomplishment: 
it is for whoever is to be a citizen-of-the-world a necessity. 
There is a Turkish proverb that he who knows two lan- 
guages, his own and another, has two souls. Certainly 
there is no better way to approach a nation's soul than 
through its language. But, in the second place, the Ro- 
mance tongues have certain artistic qualities which English 
in a great measure lacks. The student who has intelli- 
gently mastered one of them has a better sense of form, 
of delicate shades of expression, and — if the language be 
French — of clarity of phrase: what Pater termed nettete 
d^ expression. He learns to respect language (as few 
Americans now do), to study its possibilities in a way 
which a mere knowledge of English might never have 
suggested, and to appreciate its moral as well as its social 
power: for French forces him to curb his thought, to weigh 
his contention, to be simple and clear in the most abstruse 
matters. In a famous essay on the Universality of French, 
Rivarol said: " Une traduction frangaise est toujours une 
ex plication J'^ 

And lastly, in themselves and in the civilizations they 



Teaching of the Romance Languages 439 

stand for, the Romance tongues are the bridge between 
ourselves and antiquity. Since the decline in the study of 
Greek and Latin, this is a factor to be seriously considered. 
It* is the fashion today to berate the past, to speak of the 
dead hand of tradition, and to flatter ourselves with the 
delusion of self-sufficiency. To be sure, the aim of edu- 
cation is never to pile up information but to " fit your 
mind for any sort of exertion, to make it keen and flexible." 
But the best way to encompass this is to feed the mind on 
ideas, and ideas are not produced every day, nor for that 
matter every year, and luckily all ideas have not the same 
value. There are the ideas of Taine, of Rousseau, of 
Voltaire, of Descartes, of Montaigne, of Ficino, of 
Petrarch, of Dante, of Cicero, of Aristotle, of Plato; and in 
a moment I have run the gamut of all the centuries of our 
Western civilization. Who will tell me which ideas we 
shall need most tomorrow? Evidently, we cannot know 
them all. But we can at least make the attempt to know 
the best. And incidentally let it be said that he who pro- 
fesses the Romance tongues can no more dispense with the 
Classics than the Classics can today aff"ord to dispense 
with Romance: French Italian, and Spanish are the Latin 
— and one might add the Greek — of today. But to return 
to our theme: to deny our interest in the past is to throw 
away our heritage, to sell our mess of pottage to the 
lowest bidder. If the Romance languages have one func- 
tion in our American colleges, it is this: To keep alive 
the old humanistic lesson: nihil humani a me alienum 
puto; to the end that the modern college graduate may con- 
tinue to say with Montaigne: "All moral philosophy is 
applied as well to a private life as to one of the greatest 
employment. Every man carries the entire form of the 
human condition. Authors have thitherto communicated 
themselves to the people by some particular and foreign 
mark; I ... by my universal being, not as a grammarian, 
a poet, or a lawyer." The college course in the Romance 
languages skould prepare for a profession, but it must 
first help to prepare thinking men and women. 

William A. Nitze 

University of Chicago 



XXII 
THE TEACHING OF GERMAN 

Our aim rTlHE mechanical achievements of the nineteenth and 
_|_ twentieth centuries have obliterated geographical 
distances. The contact between nations, intermittent in 
former ages, has become a continuous one. It is no longer 
possible to ignore great cultural forces in foreign nations 
even temporarily — we may repudiate or appreciate them, 
as we see fit, but we should do so in a spirit of fairness 
and understanding, and not in ignorance. 

This, however, is not possible unless those who are to 
become leaders of the people are intimately familiar with 
those treasure chests of the nations that contain the true 
gems of racial spirit more abundantly than even art or 
literature, history, law or religion, stored up in the course 
of hundreds and thousands of years — the nations' lan- 
guages. It is the clear duty of the college to instill, 
through the right way of teaching foreign languages, a 
cosmopolitan spirit of this character into the growing 
minds of our young men and women, after the secondary 
school has given them the first rudiments of knowledge and 
cultural training. 

According to one's point of view, there is as much to 
be said in favor of the classical as the modern languages. 
Without doubt, their growing neglect in our institutions 
of learning is deeply to be regretted; however, its causes 
do not concern us here directly. The study of modern 
languages is, relatively speaking, so manifestly in the 
ascendency, that a return to the emphasis that was formerly 
laid upon Latin and Greek is hardly imaginable. The 
choice between several modern languages must very largely 
be determined by personal preferences and purposes. So 
much, however, can safely be said, that an intelligent read- 
ing knowledge of German and French is the least that 
should be expected of a college graduate. For, while in 

440 



Tlie Teaching of German 



441 



Place of 
German in 



theory the humanistic importance of modern language study 
is the same for all languages, it rises, in practice, proportion- 
ately with the cultural level of the foreign nation — 
German and French obviously taking the lead in this regard. 
I am optimistic enough to assume it to be generally 
granted that the study of a foreign language ought to be the college 
started early in life — say, at the age of twelve. While <^^"*<^"i"™ 
hardly challenged in theory, this desirable condition is 
far from being carried out in practice. Probably the time 
will never come when colleges will be able to dispense 
with elementary courses in modern foreign languages — 
not only for those who enter without any linguistic prepa- 
ration, but also, and perhaps preeminently, for students 
who are taking up a second foreign language in addition 
to the one (or two) started in the preparatory school. 
Thus, the starting point of the modern language course in 
college is easily fixed: it must begin at the very rudiments 
of the language. Nor is it difficult to state, in general 
terms, the purpose of the most advanced work of the un- 
dergraduate curriculum: it must consist in adequate lin- 
guistic skill, literary knowledge and feeling, and cultural 
understanding to such an extent that the college graduate 
who has specialized in German may safely be intrusted with 
the teaching of German in secondary schools. At least, 
this holds good for the majority of institutions; a small 
number of colleges devote their whole effort to cultural 
training, and some of the larger institutions, particularly 
in the East, find it possible to postpone most of the pro- 
fessional preparation to a period of graduate work. But 
on the whole the average well-equipped college includes the 
training of teachers as one end of its foreign-language work. 
Ordinarily, such mastery of the subject as would prepare 
for teaching cannot be gained within the four years' col- 
lege course. Rather, it might be said to require the aver- 
age equivalent of something like six college years, with the 
understanding that not much more than one fourth of the 
student's time be devoted to German. This implies that 
only under uncommonly favorable conditions should 



442 



College Teaching 



Organiza- 
tion of the 
German 
course 



students be encouraged to specialize in a foreign language 
that they begin on entering college. 

Thus, the peculiar conditions of modern language in- 
struction bring it about that a discussion of its organi- 
zation in college must deal with a six years' course: ele- 
mentary instruction must be offered to those entering with- 
out any knowledge of German; courses of a sufficiently ad- 
vanced character must be provided for those who enter 
with three or four years of high-school German; and there 
must be advanced work for students who intend to make 
the study and teaching of German their life's work. 

In this six years' college course three divisions are clearly 
distinguishable: an elementary division devoted to such lin- 
guistic training as will enable a student to read with fair 
ease texts of moderate difficulty; an intermediate group 
during which literary and cultural appreciation should be 
developed, and an advanced group intended for the pro- 
fessional preparation of prospective teachers of German. 
These three divisions may be approximately equal, so that 
each of them covers about two years, with four or five hours 
a week. For graduation, all students should be required 
to present the equivalent of the first period for two lan- 
guages (either classical or modern), one or both of which 
might with advantage be absolved in high school. The 
second division should be required of all students for at 
least one foreign language. Colleges of high standing may 
find it possible to exceed these requirements; no college 
should remain below them. 

The first or elementary division should, at least for one 
foreign language, be finished before the student is admitted 
to the college. All that can reasonably be expected from 
this part of the work is a study of the elements of grammar, 
the development of a good pronunciation, a fair working 
vocabulary, and some ability to read, speak, understand, 
and write German. 

The second group should include, in the main, reading 
courses to introduce the student to what is best in German 
literature, but no general theoretical study of the history 



The Teaching of German 443 

of literature need be contemplated. Besides, it must offer 
such work in speaking and writing as will develop and 
establish more firmly the results gained in the first two 
years, and an appropriate study of German history and 
institutions. Each of the three aims might be given about 
one third of the time available, but they may overlap to 
some extent. Thus, writing and speaking can be connected 
with each of them, and historical readings and reports 
may furnish a part of language practice. 

The third group, intended for the training of teachers, 
must contain a course in the method of modern language 
teaching (connected with observation and practice), an ad- 
vanced grammar course, and courses in the phonetics and 
historical development of the German language. These 
courses are indispensable for teachers, but will also be of 
advantage to students not intending to teach. 

The first group is frankly of high school character. It ^^^ ®i®- 
is best to admit this fully and freely, and to teach these group 
courses accordingly. Through greater intensity of study 
(more home work and longer class periods), the work of 
three or even four high school years may be concentrated 
into two college years, but the method cannot differ essen- 
tially. The way of learning a new language is the same, 
in principle, for a child of twelve years and a man of fifty 
years; in the latter case, there is merely the difficulty to be 
overcome that older persons are less easily inclined to sub- 
mit to that drill which is necessary for the establishment 
of those new habits that constitute Sprachgefuhl. It is a 
fallacy that the maturer mind of the college student re- 
quires a more synthetic-deductive study of the language 
than that of the high school student. 

It is sad but true that many college teachers are more 
reactionary in questions of method than the better class of 
high school teachers. The claim that elementary work in 
college requires a method different from that used in the 
high school is one symptom of this, and another symptom 
of the same tendency is the motto of so many college 
teachers that there is no " best method," and that a good 



444 College Teaching 

teacher will secure good results with any method. At the 
bottom of such phrases there is usually not much more than 
indifference and unwillingness to look for information on 
the real character of the method at which they are generally 
aimed: the direct method. The regrettable superficiality 
appearing in the frequent confusion of the " direct " with 
the " natural " method is characteristic of this. I am, of 
course, willing to admit that what nowadays is termed the 
" direct method " is not the best way possible, but that it 
may and will be improved upon. However, it is not one 
of many methods that, according to circumstances, might 
be equally good, but it represents the application of 
the present results of psychological and linguistic research 
to the teaching of languages and distinctly deserves the 
preference over older ways. 

The first demand of the direct method is the development 
not only of a fair but of a perfect pronunciation — not 
so much as the independent aim, but as an indispensable 
condition for the development of Sprachgefuhl. It is 
immeasurably easier to obtain good pronunciation from 
the start than to improve bad pronunciation by later efforts. 
In the teaching of pronunciation a slight difference in the 
treatment of children of twelve years and of college students 
might be granted: young children are generally able to 
learn the sounds of a foreign language by imitation ; students 
of college age can hardly ever do this well, and careful 
phonetic instruction is absolutely necessary with them. 
Whoever wishes to keep aloof from phonetic terms may do 
so; but not to know or not to apply phonetic principles is 
bad teaching pure and simple. The use of phonetic tran- 
scription, however, is a moot question. Its advantages are 
obvious enough: it insures a clear consciousness of correct 
pronunciation; it takes up the difficulties one by one: first 
pronunciation, then spelling; it safeguards greater care in 
matters of pronunciation in general. The objections are 
chiefly two: economy of time, and the fear of confusion 
between the two ways of spelling. The writer admits that 
until a few years ago he was skeptical as to the value of 



The Teaching of German 445 

phonetic transcription in the teaching of German. But the 
nearly general recognition of its value by the foremost 
educators of European countries and the good results 
achieved with it by teachers of French in this country 
caused him to give it a trial, under conditions that afforded 
not more than an average chance of success. The result 
was greatly beyond his expectations. Neither he nor, as 
far as he knows, any of his colleagues would contemplate 
abandoning phonetic script again. Without wishing to be 
dogmatic, I believe that this at least can be asserted with 
safety: on purely theoretical grounds, no teacher has a right 
to condemn phonetic transcription; those who doubt its 
value should try it before they judge. 

In the writer's opinion it is best not to use any histor- 
ical spelling at all during the first six or eight weeks of 
college German. If the confusing features of traditional 
orthography are eliminated during this period, it will be 
found that there results not a loss, but an actual gain in 
time from the use of phonetic script. Nor does the tran- 
sition to common spelling cause any confusion. The less 
ado made about it, the better. It is a fact of experience, 
that students who have been trained in the use of phonetic 
script turn out to be better spellers than those who have not 
— simply because this training has made them more careful 
and has given them a clearer conception of the discrep- 
ancy between sound and letter. 

That elementary grammar should be taught inductively 
is true to an extent, but often overstated. It is true for the 
more abstract principles, such as the. formation of the com- 
pound tenses, the formation and the use of the passive 
voice, and so on. But attempts at inductive teaching of 
concrete elements of mechanical memory, such as the gen- 
der and plural of nouns, or the principal parts of strong 
verbs, are a misunderstanding of the principles of induc- 
tion. It goes without saying that thorough drill is much 
more valuable than the most explicit explanation. It holds 
good for college as well as for high schools that there is 
but very little to " explain " about the grammar of any 



English 



446 College Teaching 

language. Unnecessary explanations rather increase than 
remove difficulties. 
The use of Xhe use of English is another debated question. As 

far as the teaching of grammar is concerned, it is unessen- 
tial. If inductive drill takes the place of explanations and 
abstract rules, the question is very largely eliminated from 
practical consideration. In those very rare cases when 
theoretical discussions might seem desirable, it does not 
make much difference whether a few minutes a week are 
devoted to English or not. The question assumes greater 
importance when the development of the vocabulary is con- 
sidered. In this, there are three fairly well-defined ele- 
ments to be distinguished. The first vocabulary, say, of 
the first two or three months should be developed by con- 
crete associations with objects and actions in the class- 
room; the use of the vernacular has no justification what- 
ever during that time — not on account of any objection 
to an occasional English word or phrase, but simply because 
there is no need of it, and every minute devoted to Ger- 
man is a clear gain. After this, the vocabulary should be 
further developed through the thorough practice of con- 
nected texts. If they are well constructed, the context 
will explain a considerable portion of the words occur- 
ring; those that are not made clear through the context 
form the third division of the vocabulary and can with- 
out hesitation be explained by English equivalents. In 
general, the principle will go rather far that the use of an 
occasional English word is entirely harmless, but that 
English sentences should as much as possible be avoided 
in elementary work. Connected translation, both from and 
into English, must absolutely be excluded from the first 
year's work, for the chief purpose of this year is not only 
the study of grammar and the development of an elemen- 
tary vocabulary, but, even more than that, the cultivation 
of the right attitude toward language study. Reading 
should be our chief aim, and speaking a means to that end, 
but the student must be trained, from the very beginning, to 
understand what he is reading rather through an intelli- 



The Teaching of Ger^man 447 

gent grasp of the contents than by fingering the dictionary. 
In this way he will become accustomed to associating the 
German sentences directly with the thought expressed in 
them, instead of indirectly through the medium of his na- 
tive tongue. 

A great deal of misunderstanding is frequently involved 
in the emphasis laid upon speaking. There can hardly be 
a more absurd misinterpretation of the principles of the 
direct method than for college teachers to try to " con- 
verse " with the students in German — to have with them 
German chats about the weather, the games, the political 
situation. This procedure is splendidly fit to develop in the 
students a habit of guessing at random at what they hear 
and read — a slovenly contentedness with an approximate 
understanding. Both teacher and students should speak 
and hear German practically all the time. But this should 
be distinctly in the service of reading and grammar work, 
containing almost exclusively words and forms that the stu- 
dent must know, not guess at. 

At the end of the first year a college student ought to 
have mastered the elements of grammar and possess good 
pronunciation and an active vocabulary of about six hun- 
dred or eight hundred words. If the second year is de- 
voted to further drill on grammatical elements and to care- 
ful reading, its result ought to be the ability to read authors 
of average difficulty at a fair speed. During the first year 
all reading material should be practiced so intensively 
that an average of a little more than a page a week is not 
exceeded materially; but toward the end of the second year 
a limit of six or eight pages an hour may well be reached. 
By this time, translation into good English begins to be a 
valuable factor in the achievement of conscious accuracy; 
but it must under no circumstances be resorted to until 
the students have clearly obtained the habitual attitude of 
direct association between thought and sentence. 

It is little short of a misfortune that there exists no 
adequate German-German dictionary (such as La Rousse's 
French dictionary) . It would not be very difficult to write 



448 College Teaching 

such a book, but until we possess it the irritating use of 
German -English dictionaries and vocabularies will be a 
necessary evil. 

The hardest problem of the second year — and this is 
progressively true of more advanced work — is the uneven 
preparation of the students. In large colleges it will often 
be feasible to have as many sections as possible at the same 
hour, distributing the students in accordance with their 
preparation. Where this is not possible, special help for 
poorly prepared students is generally indispensable. 
^J® The literature group is as distinctly of college character 

group as the elementary group is admittedly high school work. 

It is here, in fact, that the best ideals of the American col- 
lege find the fullest opportunity. This is true both for the 
teacher and for the student. In the elementary group, 
pedagogical skill and a fair mastery of the language are 
the chief prerequisites of a successful teacher. In the sec- 
ond group, other qualities are of greater importance. 
While a certain degree of pedagogical skill is just as nec- 
essary here as there, it is now no longer a question of the 
systematic development of habits, but of the ability to 
create sympathetic understanding, idealism, depth of knowl- 
edge, and literary taste — in short, to strive for humanistic 
education in the fullest sense of the word. This is true 
not only for colleges with a professedly humanistic ten- 
dency; the broadening and deepening influence of foreign 
language study is nowhere needed more urgently than in 
technical and other professional colleges. 

Speaking and writing must no longer stand in the center 
of instruction in the courses of the second group, but their 
importance should not be underrated, as is done so fre- 
quently (it is a fact that students often know less Ger- 
man at the end of the third year in college than at the end 
of the second year). At least during the first year of this 
group, a practice course in advanced grammar, connected 
with composition, is absolutely necessary. The grammat- 
ical work should consist in review and observation, sup- 
ported by the study of a larger reference grammar (e.g., 



The Teaching of German 449 

chapters from Curme's grammar, to introduce the students 
to the consistent use of this marvelous work). In compo- 
sition, free reproduction should still be the main thing, but 
independent themes and translation from English into Ger- 
man — which would be distinctly harmful in elementary 
work — are now valuable exercises in the study of German 
style. It would be wholly wrong, however, to make linguis- 
tic drill the Alpha and Omega of this part of the college 
course. The preparatory years should have laid a sound 
basis, which during the college work proper should not 
be allowed to disintegrate, but the fact should not be lost 
sight of that the cultural aim must be stressed most in 
the second group. 

To reach this aim, a familiarity with the best works 
of German literature is the foremost means. German litera- 
ture affords a scant choice of good and easy reading for the 
elementary stage: Storm, Ebner-Eschenbach, Seidel, and 
Wildenbruch are justly favorites, but absurdities like Baum- 
bach's Schwiegersohn are, unfortunately, still found in the 
curriculum of many colleges. In contrast with the small 
number of good elementary texts, there exists an abundance 
of excellent material for the second group. Aside from 
the classical poets, the novelists Keller, Meyer, Fontane, 
Raabe; the dramatists Hebbel, Grillparzer, Kleist, Haupt- 
mann; poems collected in the Balladenbuch or the Ernte 
present an inexhaustible wealth, without our having to re- 
sort to the literary rubbish of Benedix or Moser or the 
sneering pretentiousness of Heine's Harzreise. 

The details of organization will vary greatly for this 
group, according to special conditions. But in general 
it may be said that during the first year of this period 
about two hours a week should be devoted to the continu- 
ation of systematic language practice as outlined above, and 
three hours to the reading of German authors for literary 
purposes. Nor should this consist in "reading" alone. 
Reading as such should no longer present any difficulty, if 
the work of the elementary group has been done well. 
Special courses should be devoted to the study of the mod- 



450 College Teaching 

ern German novel, the drama, and the lyrics, and to in- 
dividual authors like those mentioned. In these detached 
literature courses the principal endeavor must be to help 
the students to understand and feel, not so much the lin- 
guistic side of the texts read, as the soul of the author, and 
through him the soul of the German nation. Reading 
must become more and more independent, the major part 
of the time in class being devoted to the cultural and aes- 
thetic interpretation of what has been read at home. It is 
evident that in this, the most important part of the Ger- 
man college work, all depends upon the personality of the 
instructor: literary and human understanding cannot be in- 
stilled into the student's mind by one who does not possess 
them himself, together with a love for teaching and the 
power to create enthusiasm. 

All other requirements must be subordinate to this — 
even the instructor's mastery of the language. No doubt, 
in theory it would be most desirable that German be the 
exclusive language of instruction throughout; but in liter- 
ary courses practical considerations will so often speak 
against this, that no sweeping answer to this question seems 
possible. For the chief aim must not be overshadowed by 
any other. If poor preparation on the part of the students 
or a deficient command of the language on the part of the 
instructor makes it doubtful whether the cultural aim can 
be attained, if German is the language of instruction, 
English should be used unhesitatingly. This implies that 
for this part of the work an instructor with a strong per- 
sonality and an artistic understanding, although lacking in 
speaking knowledge, is far preferable to one who speaks 
German fluently but cannot introduce his students to the 
greatness of German literature and the spirit of the German 
people. 

On the other hand, written reports in literary courses 
should always be required to be in German; it is also a 
good plan to devote a few minutes of each period to pre- 
pared oral reports, in German, on the part of the individual 
students. 'Where systematic practice in the colloquial use of 



The Teaching of German 451 



the language is desirable for special reasons, a conversation 
course may be established in addition to the main work, but 
literary courses are not the place for starting conversational 
practice with classes that have been neglected in this re- 
spect during their preparatory work. 

The second year of the literary group should offer a 
choice between two directions of further literary develop- 
ment: about three hours of each week should be devoted 
either to a course on the general history of German litera- 
ture, or to the intensive study of one of the greatest fac- 
tors in German literature — such as Goethe's Faust. In 
large institutions both courses can probably be given side 
by side, the students taking their choice according to their 
preference, but in most colleges an alternation of two 
courses of this kind will be preferable. 

The method of instruction is determined by the students' 
preparation and the teacher's personality, in literature 
courses more than anything else. Obviously, lectures (in 
German, where circumstances permit), extensive, systematic 
reading, written reports, and class discussion are the domi- 
nating features of such courses. 

Some knowledge of German history and institutions is 
an indispensable adjunct of any serious work in German 
literature. Probably in all colleges such instruction will 
be incumbent upon the German departments, and it is 
rarely possible to combine it with the course on the gen- 
eral history of German literature. Therefore, a special 
course in German history and institutions should be offered 
during the second year of the literature group. 

The work of this group may overlap that of the second ^^^^Jl^^®^' 
group to a considerable extent, in the sense that courses 
in both groups may be taken at the same time. The pro- 
fessional preparation of a teacher of German should in- 
clude: a thorough knowledge of the structure of the Ger- 
man language, an appreciative familiarity with German 
literature, and a fair amount of specialized pedagogical 
training. The study of literature cannot be different for 
prospective teachers from that for all other types of col- 



sional group 



452 College Teaching 

lege students, and, therefore, belongs to the second group. 
But their knowledge of language structure, though not 
necessarily of a specialistic philological character, must in- 
clude a more detailed knowledge of German grammar, a 
familiarity with technical German phonetics, and at least an 
elementary insight into the historical development of the lan- 
guage. In addition to suitable courses in these three sub- 
jects, a pedagogical course, dealing with the methods of 
modern language teaching, and connected with observation 
and practice teaching, must be provided for. Where the 
previous training has been neglected, a course in German 
conversation may be added; but, generally speaking, this 
should no longer be necessary with students in their fifth 
or sixth year of German instruction. Wherever this need 
exists, the system of instruction is at fault. 
Conclusion Incomplete though this brief outline must necessarily be, 

the writer has attempted to touch upon the most important 
phases of the students' development of linguistic, cultural, 
and, where demanded, professional command of German. 
Little has so far been said concerning the college teacher. 
The strong emphasis placed upon the direct method in this 
article should not be misinterpreted as meaning that a fluent 
command of the spoken language is a conditio sine qua non. 
Nothing could be farther from the truth. First of all, the 
necessity of the exclusive use of the direct method exists 
obviously only in the elementary group. In this group, 
however, " conversation " in the generally accepted sense 
of the word should not be attempted — it will do more harm 
than good. The constant practice in speaking and hearing 
should be so rigidly subservient to the interpretation and 
practice of the texts being read and to grammatical drill, 
that only a minimum of " speaking knowledge " on the part 
of the teacher is unavoidably necessary; his pronunciation, 
of course, must be perfect. However desirable it may be 
that a teacher should know intimately well the language 
he is teaching in college, there are other requirements even 
higher than this; they are, in the first group, energy, 
thoroughness, and pedagogical skill, coupled with an in- 



The Teaching of German 453 

telligent understanding of the basic principles of the direct 
method; in the second group, literary appreciation and a 
sympathetic understanding of German thought, history, and 
civilization; and, for the third group, elementary philologi- 
cal training, theoretical as well as practical acquaintance 
with the needs of the classroom, and a long and varied ex- 
perience in teaching. Rarely will all three qualifications 
be combined in one person, nor are such fortunate combina- 
tions necessary in most colleges. A wise distribution of 
courses among the members of the department can in most 
cases be effected in such a way that each teacher's talents are 
utilized in their proper places. 

E. Prokosch 



PART FIVE 
The Arts 

CHAPTBB 

XXIII The Teaching of Music Edward Dickinson 

XXIV The Teaching of Art Holmes Smith 



recent 



XXIII 
THE TEACHING OF MUSIC 

THERE is perhaps no more direct way of throwing a sort Music a 
of flashlight upon the musical activity in the colleges tivTrece. 
ot America than the statement that a volume of this kind addition to 
if prepared a dozen years ago, would either have contained TnrSm 
no chapter upon music, or, if music were given a place at 
all, the argument would have been occupied with hopes 
rather than achievements. Not that it would be literally 
true to say that music was wholly a negligible quantity 
in the homes of higher education until the twentieth cen- 
tury, but the seat assigned to it in the few institutions where 
it was found was an obscure and lowly one, and the influ- 
ence radiating therefrom reached so small a fragment of the 
academic community that no one who was not engaged in a 
careful, sympathizing search could have been aware of its 
existence. It was less than twenty years ago that a promi- 
nent ^musical journal printed the very moderate statement 
that " the youth who is graduated at Yale, Harvard, Johns 
Hopkins, Brown, Dartmouth, Bowdoin, Amherst, Cornell, 
or Columbia has not even a smattering of music beyond 
the music of the college glee and mandolin club; and of 
course to cultivate that is the easiest road to musical per- 
dition." One who looks at those institutions now, and 
attempts to measure the power and reach of their depart- 
ments of music, will not deny the right to the satisfaction 
which their directors — men of national influence — must 
feel, and would almost expect them to echo the words of 
ancient Simeon. The contrast is indeed extraordinary, and, 
I believe, unparalleled. The work of these men, and of 
others who could be named with them, has not been merely 
development, but might even be called creation. Any one 
who attempts to keep track of the growth of musical edu- 
cation in our colleges, universities, and also in the second- 
ary schools of the present day, will find that the bare sta- 

457 



458 



College Teaching 



History of 
the subject 
of music in 
the Ameri- 
can college 
curriculum 



tistics of this increase, to say nothing of a study of the 
problems involved, will engage much more than his hours 
of leisure. Music, which not long ago held tolerance only 
as an outside interest, confined to the sphere of influence 
of the glee club and the chapel choir, is now, in hundreds 
of educational institutions, accorded the privileges due to 
those arts and sciences whose function in historic civiliza- 
tion, and potency in scholarly discipline and liberal cul- 
ture, give them domicile by obvious and inalienable right. 

The first university professorships in music were founded 
at Harvard in 1876, and at the University of Pennsylvania 
at about the same time. Vassar College established musical 
courses in 1867, Oberlin in 1869. Harvard took the lead in 
granting credit for certain courses in music toward the de- 
gree of A.B. in 1870.^ Progress thereafter for many years 
was slow; but in 1907 investigation showed that "approxi- 
mately one half the colleges in the country recognize the 
value of instruction in music sufficiently to grant credit 
in this subject." ^ Since this date college after college and 
university after university have fallen into line, only a few 
resisting the current that sets toward the universal accept- 
ance of music as a legitimate and necessary element in 
higher education. The problem with the musical educators 
of the country is no longer how to crowd their subject into 
the college preserve, but how to organize its forces there, 
how to develop its methods on a basis of scholarly efficiency, 
how to harmonize its courses with the ideals of the old es- 
tablished departments, and now, last of all, how to bring 
the universities and colleges into cooperation with the rapid 
extension of musical practice, education, and taste which 
has, in recent days, become a conspicuous factor in our 
national progress. 

An investigation into the causes of this great change 

1 Arthur L. Manchester: "Music Education in the United States; 
Schools and Departments of Music." United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation Bulletin, 1908, No. 4. 

2 Papers and Proceedings of the Music Teachers' National Associa- 
tion, 1907; report by Leonard B. McWhood. 



The Teaching of Music 



459 



would be fully as interesting as a critical examination of 
its results. The limits of this chapter require that consider- 
ation be given to the present and future of this movement 
rather than to its past; but it is especially instructive, I think, 
to those who are called upon to deal practically with it, 
to observe that the welcome now accorded to music in our 
higher institutions of learning is due to changes in both 
the college and its environment. In view of the constitu- 
tion and relationships of our higher schools (unlike those 
of the universities of Europe) , any alteration in the ideals, 
the practical activities, and the living conditions of the 
people of the democracy will sooner or later affect those 
institutions whose aim is fundamentally to equip young 
men and women for social leadership. It is unnecessary 
to remind the readers of such a book as this of the marked 
enlargement of the interests of the intelligent people of 
America in recent years, or of the prominent place which 
aesthetic considerations hold among these interests. The 
ancient thinker, to whom nothing of human concern was 
alien, would find the type he represented enormously in- 
creased in these latter days. The passion for the release of 
all the latent energies and the acquisition of every material 
good, which characterizes the American people to a degree 
hitherto unknown in the world since the outburst of the 
Renaissance, issues, as in the Renaissance, in an enormous 
multiplication of the machinery by which the enjoyment of 
life and its outward embellishment are promoted. But 
more than this and far better — the eager pursuit of the 
means fo"r enhancing physical and mental gratification has 
coincided with a growing desire for the general welfare; — 
hence the aesthetic movement of recent years, and the zeal for 
social betterment which excludes no section or class or occu- 
pation, tend to unite, and at the same time to work inward 
and develop a type of character which seeks joy not 
only in beauty but also in the desire to give beauty a home 
in the low as well as in the high places. Whatever may be 
one's view of the final value of the recent American produc- 
tions in literature and the fine arts, the social, democratic 



Changing 
social ideals 
responsible 
for the new 
attitude to- 
ward the 
study of 
music in 
colleges 



460 



College Teaching 



The educa- 
tive function 
of music 



tendency in them is unmistakable. The company of enthu- 
siastic men and women who are preaching the gospel of 
beauty as a common human birthright is neither small nor 
feeble. The fine arts are emerging from the studios, pro- 
fessional schools, and coteries; they are no longer con- 
ceived as the special prerogative of privileged classes; 
not even is the creation of masterpieces as objects of national 
pride the pervading motive; — but they are seen to be 
potential factors in national education, ministering to the 
happiness and mental and moral health of the community 
at large. It was impossible that the most enlightened di- 
rectors of our colleges, universities, and public schools 
should not perceive the nature and possibilities of this 
movement, hasten to ally themselves with it, and in many 
cases assume a leadership in it to which their position and 
advantages entitled them. 

The commanding claims which the arts of design, music, 
and the drama are asserting for an organized share in the 
higher education is also, I think, a consequence of the 
change that has come about in recent years in the constitu- 
tion of the curriculum, the methods of instruction, the per- 
sonnel of the student body, the multiplication of their sanc- 
tioned activities, and especially in the attitude of the under- 
graduates toward the traditional idea of scholarship. The 
old college was a place where strict, inherited conceptions 
of scholarship and mental discipline were piously main- 
tained. The curriculum rested for its main support upon a 
basis of the classics and mathematics, which imparted a clas- 
sic and mathematical rigidity to the whole structure. The 
professor was an oracle, backed by oracular textbooks; 
the student's activity was restricted by a traditional asso- 
ciation of learning with self-restraint and outward severity 
of life. The revolutionary change came with the marvelous 
development of the natural sciences, compelling radical 
readjustments of thought both within and without the col- 
lege, the quickening of the social life about the campus, 
and the sharp division of interest, together with a multi- 
plication of courses which made the elective system inevi- 



The Teaching of Music 461 



table. The consequence was, as President Wilson states it, 
that a " disintegration was brought about which destroyed 
the old college with its fixed disciplines and ordered life, 
and gave us our present problem of reorganization and re- 
covery. It centered in the break-up of the old curriculum 
and the introduction of the principle that the student was 
to select his own studies from a great variety of courses. 
But the change could not, in the nature of things, stop 
with the plan of study. It held in its heart a tremendous 
implication; — the implication of full manhood on the part 
of the pupil, and all the untrammeled choice of manhood. 
The pupil who was mature and well-informed enough to 
study what he chose, was also by necessary implication 
mature enough to be left free to do what he pleased, to 
choose his own associations and ways of life outside the 
curriculum without restraint or suggestion; and the varied, 
absorbing life of our day sprang up as the natural off- 
spring of the free election of studies." ^ 

Into an academic life so constituted, art, music, and the Thede- 
1 , r 11- 1 . r 1 . velopment 

drama inust pertorce make their way by virtue oi their of emotions 

appeal to those instincts, always latent, which were now set ff well as 
m action. Those agencies by which the emotional life has a vital con- 
always been expressed and stimulated found a welcome coiSge^eur- 
prepared for them in the hearts of college youths, stirred ricuium 
with new zests and a more lively self-consciousness. But 
for a time they met resistance in the supremacy of the 
exact sciences, erroneously set in opposition to the forces 
which move the emotions and the imagination, and the 
stern grip, still jealously maintained, of the old conception 
of " mental discipline " and the communication of infor- 
mation as the prime purpose of college teaching. The re- 
laxation came with the recognition of aesthetic pursuits as 
" outside interests," and organization and endowment soon 
followed. But a college art museum logically involves lec- 
tures upon art, a theater an authoritative regulation of the 

'^ The Spirit of Learning, Woodrow Wilson; in Representative Phi 
Beta Kappa Orations, edited by Northup, Lane and Schwab. Bos- 
ton, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1915. 



462 



College Teaching 



Problems in 
teaching of 
music in 
the college 



things offered therein, a concert hall and concert courses 
instruction in the history and appreciation of music. And 
so, with surprising celerity, the colleges began to readjust 
their schemes to admit those agencies that act upon the emo- 
tion as well as the understanding, and the problem how to 
bring aesthetic culture into a working union with the tra- 
ditional aims and the larger social opportunities of the 
college faced the college educator, and disturbed his re- 
pose with its peremptory insistence upon a practical solu- 
tion. 

Although the question of purpose, method, and adapta- 
tion presents general difficulties of similar character in re- 
spect to the college administration of all the fine arts, 
music is undoubtedly the most embarrassing item in the 
list. In this department of our colleges there is no common 
conviction as to methods, no standardized system; but 
rather a bewildering disagreement in regard to the subjects 
to be taught, the extent and nature of their recognition, 
the character of the response to be expected of the student 
mind, and the kind of gauge by which that response shall be 
measured by teachers, deans, and registrars. In the matter 
of literature and the arts of design, where there is like- 
wise an implicit intention of enriching aesthetic appreciation, 
an agreement is more easily reached, by reason of their 
closer relationship to outer life, to action, and the more 
familiar processes of thought. Few would maintain that 
the purpose of college courses in English literature is to 
train professional novelists and poets; the college leaves to 
the special art schools and to private studios the develop- 
ment of painters, sculptors, and architects. What remains 
to the college is reasonably clear. But in music, on the con- 
trary, the function of the college is by no means so evident 
as to induce anything like general agreement. Should the 
musical courses be exclusively cultural, or should they be 
so shaped as to provide training for professional work in 
composition or performance? Should they be " practical " 
(that is, playing and singing), or simply theoretical (har- 
mony, counterpoint, etc.), or entirely confined to musical 



The Teaching of Music 463 

history and appreciation? Should credits leading to the 
A.B. degree be given for musical work, and if so, ought they 
to include performance, or only theory and composition? 
Should musical degrees be granted, and if so, for what 
measure of knowledge or proficiency? One or two Western 
colleges give credit for work done under the direction of 
private teachers in no way connected with the institution: 
— is this procedure to be commended, and if so, under what 
safeguards? Should a college maintain a musical " con- 
servatory " working under a separate administrative and 
financial system, many or all of whose teachers are not 
college graduates; or should its musical department be 
necessarily an organic part of the college of arts and 
sciences, exactly like the department of Latin or chemistry? 
If the former, as is the case with many Western institu- 
tions, to what extent should the work in the music school 
be supervised by the college president and general faculty; 
under what limitations may candidates for the A.B. de- 
gree be allowed to take . accredited work in the music 
school? What should be the relation of the college to 
the university in respect to the musical courses? Is it 
possible to establish a systematic progress from step to 
step similar to that which exists in many of the old es- 
tablished lines? What should be the relation between the 
college and the secondary schools? Should the effort be 
to establish a continuity of study and promotion, such 
as that which exists in such subjects as Latin and 
mathematics? Should the college give entrance credits 
for musical work? If so, should it be on examination or 
certificate, for practical or theoretical work, or both? 
Should the courses in the history and appreciation of 
music be thrown open to all students, or only to those 
who have some preliminary technical knowledge? 

These are some of the questions that face a college gov- 
erning board when music is under discussion — questions 
that are dealt with on widely divergent principles by col- 
leges of equal rank. Some institutions in the West per- 
mit to music a freedom and variety in respect to grades, 



464 College Teaching 

subjects, and methods which they allow to no other sub- 
ject. The University of Kansas undertakes musical ex- 
tension work throughout the state. Brown University re- 
stricts its musical instruction to lecture courses on the his- 
tory and appreciation of music. Between these extremes 
there is every diversity of opinion and procedure that can 
be conceived. The problem, as I have said, is two-fold, 
and so long as disagreement exists as to the object of 
collegiate musical work, there can be no uniformity in ad- 
ministration. 

In a university the problem is or should be somewhat 
more simple, just as there is a more general accord con- 
cerning the precise object of university training. In place 
of the confusion of views in regard to ideals and systems 
and methods which exist in the present-day college, we 
find in the university a calmness of conviction touching 
essentials that results from the comparative simplicity of its 
functions and aims. A conspicuous tendency in our uni- 
versities is toward specialization; their spirit and methods 
are largely derived from the professional and graduate 
schools which give them their tone and prestige. They 
look toward research and the advancement of learning as 
their particular raison d'etre, and also toward the practical 
application of knowledge to actual life and the disciplining 
of special faculties for definite vocational ends.^ Since 
our universities, unlike those of Europe, consist of a union 
of graduate and undergraduate departments, any single 
problem, like that of music, is simplified by the opportunity 
afforded by the direct passage from undergraduate to 
graduate work, and the greater encouragement to speciali- 
zation in the earlier courses. A graduate school which 
admits music will naturally do so on a vocational basis, 

1 1 wish to safeguard this statement by saying that I have in mind 
not the more conservative universities of the East, but the state insti- 
tutions of the Middle and Western commonwealths. In speaking of 
universities as compared with colleges I am also considering the 
graduate and professional departments. It is difficult to make gen- 
eral assertions on such a subject that do not meet with exceptions. 



The Teaching of Music 465 



and the question is not of the aim to be sought, but the 
much easier one of the means of its attainment, since there 
IS no more of a puzzle in teaching an embryo composer or 
music teacher than there is in teaching an incipient physi- 
cian or engineer. 

It seems to me that the opportunity before the univer- 
sity has been stated in a very clear and suggestive manner 
by Professor Albert A. Stanley of the University of Michi- 
gan: "If in the future the line of demarcation between 
the college and the university shall cease to be as sinuous 
and shadowy as at present, the university will offer well- 
defined courses in research, in creative work, possibly in 
interpretation — by which I do not mean criticism, but 
rather that which is criticized. [Professor Stanley evi- 
dently refers to musical performance.] The college 
courses will then be so broadened that the preparatory 
work will of necessity be relegated to the secondary schools. 
This will impose on the colleges and universities still an- 
other duty — the fitting of competent teachers. Logically 
music will then be placed on the list of entrance studies, 
and the circle will be complete. The fitting of teachers 
who can satisfy the conditions of such work as will then 
be demanded will be by no means the least function of the 
higher institutions. There will be more and more demand 
for the broadly trained teacher, and there will be an even 
greater demand for the specialist. By this I mean the 
specialist who has been developed in a normal manner, 
and who appreciates the greater relations of knowledsre and 
life." ^ 

There is no question that the future of music in the Problems in 

colleges will greatly depend upon the developments in the musfcif °^ 

secondary schools. If the time ever comes when the admin- secondary 

istrators of our public school system accept and act upon inteiii|en«y 

the assertion of Dr. Claxton, United States Commissioner of attacked 
Education, that " after the beginnings of reading, writing, 
and mathematics music has greater practical value than any 

1 Papers and Proceedings of the Music Teachers' National Associa- 
tion, 1906. 



466 College Teaching 

other subject taught in the schools," the college will find 
its determination of musical courses an easier matter than 
it is now. Students will in that event come prepared to 
take advantage of the more advanced instruction offered 
by the college, as they do at present in the standard sub- 
jects, and the musical pathway through the college, and then 
through the university, will be direct and unimpeded. Al- 
though such a prospect may seem to many only a roseate 
dream, it is a safer prophecy than it would have appeared 
a half-dozen years ago. The number of grammar and 
high schools is rapidly increasing in which the pupils are 
given solid instruction in chorus singing, ensemble playing, 
musical theory, and the history and appreciation of music; 
and in many places pupils are also permitted to carry on 
private study in vocal and instrumental music at the hands 
of approved teachers, and school credit given therefor. 
So apparent is the need of this latter privilege, and so full 
of fine possibilities, that the question of licensing private 
teachers with a view to an official recognition of the fittest 
has begun to receive the attention of state associations and 
legislatures. It is impossible that the colleges should re- 
main indifferent to these tendencies in the preparatory 
schools, for their duty and their advantage are found in 
cooperating with them. The opportunity has been most 
clearly seen by those colleges which have established de- 
partments for the training of supervisors of public school 
music. Such service comes eminently within the role of 
the college, for a disciplined understanding, a liberal cul- 
ture, an acquaintance with subjects once unrecognized as 
related to music teaching, are coming to be demanded in the 
music supervisor. The day of the old country-school sing- 
ing master transferred to the public school is past; the day 
of the trained supervisor, who measures up to the intellec- 
tual stature of his colleagues, is at hand. So clearly is 
this perceived that college courses in public school music, 
which at first occupied one year at the most, are being ex- 
tended to two years and three years, and in at least one 
or two instances occupying four years. And the benefit 



The Teaching of Music 



467 



is not confined to the schoolroom, for an educated man, 
conscious of his peculiar powers, will see and use oppor- 
tunities afforded him not merely as a salaried preceptor but 
also as a citizen. 

To revert to the difficulties which the college faces in 
adjusting musical courses to the general scheme of academic 
instruction: it is clear that these difficulties lie partly in 
the very nature of musical art. For music is not only an 
art but a science. It is the product of constructive inge- 
nuity as well as of "inspiration"; its technique is of ex- 
quisite refinement and appalling difficulty; it appeals to the 
intellect as well as to the emotion. And yet the intellec- 
tual element is but tributary, and if the consciousness will- 
fully shuts its gates against the tide of rapture rushing to 
flood the sense and the emotion, then in reality music is 
not, for its spirit is dead. What shall be done with an 
agency so fierce and absorbing as this? Can it be tamed 
and fettered by the old conceptions of mental discipline 
and scholastic routine? Only by falsifying its nature and 
denying its essential appeal. Some colleges attempt so to 
evade the difficulty, and lend favor, so far at least as 
credit is concerned, only to the theoretical studies in which 
the training is as severe, and almost as unimaginative, as 
it is in mathematics. But to many this appears too much 
like a reversion to the viewpoint of the mediaeval con- 
vent schools which classed music in the quadrivium along 
with arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Neither the cre- 
ative power nor the aesthetic receptivity is considered in 
such courses as these, and the spirit of music revolts 
against this confinement and gives its pedantic jailers no 
peace. 

Shall practical courses in playing and singing be ac- 
cepted? Now the objection arises that any proficiency 
with which a student — at least a talented one — would be 
satisfied, entails hours each day of purely technical prac- 
tice, involving little of the kind of mental activity that is 
presupposed in the tradition of college training. Those 
institutions that have no practical courses are logical, at all 



Vital 

function of 
music in 
college cur- 
riculum is 
emotional 
and aesthetic 



The practi- 
cal course 
as dis'cipli- 
nary as the 
theoretical 



468 



College Teaching 



Lack of col- 
lege-trained 
teachers 
adds to dif- 
ficulty of 
recognizing 
music as 
a college 
subject 



events, and seem to follow the line of least resistance. But 
the opposition against the purely theoretical side of musical 
culture will not down, and the " practical '" element makes 
steady headway as the truth shines more clearly upon the 
administrative mind that musical performance is not a 
matter of mechanical technique alone, but of scholarship, 
imaginative insight, keen emotional reaction, and interpre- 
tation which involves a sympathetic understanding of the 
creative mind. The objection to practical exercise dwindles 
as the conception of its nature and goal enlarges. 

Another hindrance presents itself — not so inherent in the 
nature of the case as those just mentioned — and that is the 
lack of teachers of music whose educational equipment 
corresponds in all particulars to the standard which the 
colleges have always maintained as a condition of election 
to their corps of instructors. That one who is not a col- 
lege graduate should be appointed to a professorship or 
instructorship in a college or university might seem to a 
college man of the old school very near an absurdity. 
Yet as matters now stand it would be impossible to fill the 
collegiate musical departments with holders of the A.B. 
degree. The large and increasing number of college gradu- 
ates who are entering the musical profession, especially 
with a view to finding a home in higher educational insti- 
tutions, is an encouraging phase of present tendencies, and 
seems to hold out an assurance that this aspect of the col- 
lege dilemma will eventually disappear.^ It is possible, 
however, that the colleges may be willing to agree to a 
compromise, making a distinction between the teachers of 
the history and criticism of music and those engaged in the 
departments of musical theory and performance. Certainly 
no man should be given a college position who is not in 
sympathy with the largest purposes of the institution and 
able to contribute to their realization; but it must be re- 
membered that broad intelligence and elevated character 

^ There is an interesting statistical article on the college graduate in 
the musical profession by W. J. Baltzell in the Musical Quarterly,- 
October, 1915. 



ation 0* 
music 



The Teaching of Music 469 

are to be found outside the ranks of college alumni, and 

are not guaranteed by a college diploma. 

Amid the iansrle of conflictino; opinions in regard to ?®^^^^"^°^ 
J ° Til the history 

courses and methods and credits and degrees, etc., etc., andappreci- 

one subject enjoys the distinction of unanimous consent, 
and that is the history and appreciation of music. This 
department may stand alone, as it does at Brown University, 
or it may supplement theoretical and practical courses; but 
there seems to be a universal conviction that if the colleges 
accept music in any guise, they must use it as a means of 
enlarging comprehension and taste on the part of their 
young people, and of bringing them to sympathetic accept- 
ance of its finest manifestations. It seems incredible that a 
college should employ literature and the fine arts except 
with the fixed intention of bringing them to bear upon the 
mind of youth according to the purpose of those who made 
them what they are in the spiritual development of human- 
ity. Even from the most rigid theoretical and technical 
drill the cultural aim must not be excluded if the college 
would be true to itself; how much more urgent is the duty 
of providing courses in which the larger vision of art, with 
the resultant spiritual: quickening, is the prime intention! 
President Nicholas Murray Butler, in his address of welcome 
to the Music Teachers' National Association at their meet- 
ing in New York in 1907, struck a note that must find re- 
sponse in the minds of all who are called upon to deal 
officially with this question, when he recognized as a de- 
partment of music worthy of the college dignity "one which 
is not to deal merely with the technique of musical expres- 
sion or musical processes, but one which is to interpret the 
underlying principles of musical art and the various sci- 
ences on which it rests, and to set out and to illustrate to 
men and women who are seeking education what those prin- 
ciples signify, how they may be brought helpfully and in- 
spiringly into intellectual life, and what part they should 
play in the public consciousness of a cultivated and civ- 
ilized nation." 

The first step in understanding the part which the prin- 



470 



College Teaching 



Emphasis 
on apprecia- 
tion rather 
than tech- 
nicLue 



The prop- 
erly trained 
college 
teacher 
of music 



ciples of music should play in the consciousness of a civi- 
lized nation is to learn the part they have played in history. 
A survey of this history shows that all the phenomena of 
musical development, even those apparently transient and 
superficial, testify to a necessity of human nature, an un- 
appeasable thirst for self-expression. In view of the re- 
lationship of musical art to the individual and the collec- 
tive need, it is plain that musical history and musical ap- 
preciation must be taught together as a supplementary phase 
of one great theme. And, furthermore, this phase is one 
that is not only necessary in a complete scheme of musical 
culture, but is also one that is conveyed in a language 
which all can understand. It is significant of the broad 
democratic outlook of our American institutions of learn- 
ing, in contrast to the universities of Europe, that the needs 
of the unprepared students are considered as well as the 
benefit of those who have had musical preparation, and the 
mysteries of musical art are submitted to all who desire 
initiation. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon this 
wise and generous attitude toward the fine arts which is 
maturing in our American colleges; by which they demon- 
strate their belief in the power of adaptation of all mani- 
festations of beauty to the condition of every one of in- 
telligence, however slight the experience or limited the 
talent. There are, unquestionably, certain puzzling diffi- 
culties in imparting an understanding of musical structure 
and principles to those who have not even a preliminary 
smattering of the musical speech, but the experiment has 
gone far enough to prove that music, with all its abstruse- 
ness, complexity, and remoteness from the world of ordi- 
nary experience, has still a message so direct, so pene- 
trating, so human and humanizing, that no one can be 
wholly indifferent to its eloquence when it comes through 
the ministry of a qualified interpreter. 

A qualified interpreter! — yes, there's the rub. Only a 
few years ago men competent to teach the history and 
philosophy of music in a manner which a college or univer- 
sity could consistently tolerate, were almost non=existent, 



The Teaching of Music 471 



and even today many colleges are out of sheer necessity 
giving over this department to men of very scanty qualifica- 
tions. Few men have faith enough to prepare for work that 
is not yet in sight. Then with the sudden breaking out of 
musical history and appreciation courses all over the 
country, the demand appeared instantly far in excess of the 
supply. The few men who had prepared themselves for 
scholarly critical work were, as a rule, in the employ of 
daily newspapers, and the colleges were compelled to dele- 
gate the historical and interpretative lectures to those whose 
training had been almost wholly in other lines of musical 
interest. No reputable college would think for a moment 
of offering chairs of political science, or general history, or 
English literature to men with so meager an equipment. 
There is no doubt that the disfavor with which the musical 
courses are still regarded by professors of the old school 
is largely due to the feeling that their musical colleagues 
as a rule have undergone an education so narrow and special 
that it keeps them apart from the full life of the institu- 
tion. That this is the tendency of an education that is 
exclusively special, no one can deny. It is equally undeni- 
able that such an education is quite inadequate in the case 
of one who assumes to teach the history and appreciation of 
music. This subject, by reason of the multifarious relations 
between music and individual and social life, demands not 
only a complete technical knowledge, but also a familiarity 
with languages, general history, literature, and art not less 
than that required by any other subject that could be men- 
tioned. The suggestion by a French critic that a lecturer on 
art must be an artist, a historian, a philosopher, and a poet, 
applies with equal relevance to a lecturer on music. 

It is only fair to the musical profession to say that its 
members are as eager to meet these requirements as the 
colleges are to make them. If music still holds an inferior 
place in many colleges, both in fact and in esteem, the fault 
lies in no small measure in the ignorance on the part of 
trustees, presidents, and faculties of the nature of music, 
its demands, its social values, and its mission in the de- 



472 College Teaching 

velopment of civilization. With the enlightenment of the 
powers that control the college machinery, encouragement 
will be given to men of liberal culture and scholarly habit 
to prepare themselves directly for college work. The hun- 
dreds of college graduates now in the musical profession 
will be followed by other hundreds still more amply 
equipped as critics and expounders. The natural place 
for the majority of them, I maintain, is not in the private 
studio or newspaper office, but in the college and university 
classroom. 

There is no reason in the nature of things why our col- 
leges and universities should not also be the centers of a 
concentrated and intensive activity, directed upon research 
and philosophic generalization in the things of music as in 
other fields of inquiry. For this they must provide libra- 
ries, endowments, and fellowships. Such works as Mr. 
Elson's History of American Music, Mr. Krehbiel's Afro- 
American Folksongs, and Mr. Kelly's Chopin as a Com- 
poser should properly emanate from the organized insti- 
tutions of learning which are able to give leisure and facility 
to men of scholarly ambition. The French musical histo- 
rian, Jules Combarieu,. enumerates as the domains constantly 
open to musical scholarship: acoustics, physiology, mathe- 
matics, psychology, aesthetics, history, philology, palaeog- 
raphy, and sociology.^ Every one of these topics has 
already an indispensable place in the college and univer- 
sity system — it is for trained scholarship to draw from 
them the contributions that will relate music explicitly to 
the active life of the intellect. 

But not for the intellect only. Here the colleges are still 
in danger of error, due to their long-confirmed emphasis 
upon concepts, demonstrations, scientific methods, and 
" positive " results, to the neglect of the imagination, the 
emotions, the intuitions, and the things spiritually discerned. 
" The sovereign of the arts," says Edmund Clarence Sted- 
man, " is the imagination, by whose aid man makes every 

^ Music; Its Laws and Evolution: Introduction. Translation in Ap- 
pleton's hiternational Scientific Series. 



The Teaching of Music 473 

leap forward; and emotion is its twin, through which 
come all fine experiences, and all great deeds are achieved. 
Youth demands its share in every study that can engender 
a power or a delight. Universities must enhance the use, 
the joy, the worth of existence. They are institutions both 
human and humane." ^ 

Institutions which exclude the agencies which act directly The test of 
to enhance "the joy and the worth of existence" are uni- teaching of 
versities only in name. Equally imperfect are they if, music in the 
while nominally accepting these agencies, they recognize Does it en- 
only those elements in them which are susceptible to scien- rich the life 
tific analysis, whose effects upon the student can be tested student 
by examinations and be marked and graded — elements incuSicm 

which are only means, and not final ends. The college for- of an 

1 .1 1 . • . -,. . p . , aesthetic 

ever needs the numanizmg, socializmg power oi music, the interest? 

drama, the arts of design, and it must use them not as con- 
fined to the classroom or to any single section of the insti- 
tution, but as the effluence of spiritual life, permeating and 
invigorating the whole. In the mental life of the college 
there have always ruled investigation, comparison, analysis, 
and the temper fostered is that of reflection and didac- 
ticism. Into this world of deliberation, routine, mechanical 
calculation, there has come the warm breath of music, art, 
and poetry, stirring a new fire of rapture amid the em- 
bers of speculation. The instincts of youth spring to in« 
hale it; youth feels affiliation with it, for art and poesy, 
like nature, are ever self-renewing and never grow old. 
It works to unify the life of the college whose tendency 
is to divide into sealed compartments of special intellectual 
interests. It introduces a life that all may share, because 
men divide when led by their intellects, they unite when led 
by their emotions. Among the fine arts music is perhaps 
supreme in its power to refine the sense of beauty, to soften 
the heart at the touch of high thought and tender senti- 
ment, to bring the individual soul into sympathy with the 
over-soul of humanity. It is this that gives music its su- 

^ The Nature and Elements of Poetry, page 5. 



474 College Teaching 

preme claim to an honored place in the halls of learning, 
as it is its crowning glory. 

The whole argument, then, is reduced to this: that with 
all the scientific aspects of the art with respect to material, 
structure, psychological action, historical origins and de- 
velopments and relations, of which the college, as an insti- 
tution of exact learning, may take cognizance, music must 
be accepted and taught just because it is beautiful and pro- 
motes the joy of life, and the development of the higher 
sense of beauty and the spiritual quickening that issues 
therefrom must be the final reason for its use. At the same 
time it must be so cultivated and taught that it will unite 
its forces for a common end with all those factors which, 
within the college and without the college, are now working 
with an energy never known before in American history for 
a social life animated by a zeal for ideal rather than 
material ends, and inspired by nobler visions of the true 
meaning of national progress. 

Among the worthy functions of our colleges there is none 
more needful than that of inspiring ardent young crusaders 
who shall go forth to contend against the hosts of medioc- 
rity, ugliness, and vulgarity. One encouragement to this 
warfare is in the fact that these hosts, although legion, are 
dull as well as gross, and may easily be bewildered and put 
to rout by the organized assaults of the children of light. 
So may it be said of our institutions of culture, as Matthew 
Arnold said of Oxford, that they " keep ever calling us 
nearer to the true goal of all of us, to the ideal, to per- 
fection — to beauty, in a word, which is only truth seen 
from another side." 

Edward Dickinson 

Oberlin College 



XXIV 
THE TEACHING OF ART 

IN this chapter an attempt is made to set forth the aims, Artinstruc- 
1 iir • ..1 11 tion defined 

content, and methods oi art mstruction m the college. 

In this discussion the word " college " will be regarded in 
the usual sense of the College of Liberal Arts, and art in- 
struction as one of the courses which lead to the degree 
of bachelor of arts. 

There is no term that is used more freely and with less 
precision than the word " art." In some usages it is given 
a very broad and comprehensive meaning, in others a very 
narrow and exclusive one. The term is sometimes ap- 
plied to a human activity, at other times to the products 
of but a small part of that activity — for example, paintings 
and statuary. 

In this chapter the term will be used in accordance with 
the definition evolved by Tolstoi, who says: "Art is a 
human activity, consisting in this, that one man consciously, 
by means of external signs, hands on to others feelings he 
has lived through, and that other people are affected by 
these feelings, and also experience them." ^ The external 
signs by which the feelings are handed on are movements, 
as in dancing and pantomime; lines, masses, colors, as in 
architecture, painting and sculpture; sounds, as in music; or 
forms expressed in words, as in poetry and other forms of 
literature. The external signs with which art instruction 
in the college deals are lines, masses, and colors. This 
discussion, therefore, treats of instruction in the formative 
or visual arts, which include architecture, painting, sculp- 
ture, decoration, and the various crafts, in so far as they 
come within the meaning of the definition given above. 

Concerning the nature of art and the purpose of art 
instruction in the college, there is so much misunderstanding 

1 Tolstoi, L. N., What Is Art? Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1899. 
Chapter V, page 43. 

475 



476 



College TeacJiing 



Instruction 
in art 
should be 
an integral 
part of a 
liberal edu- 
cation 



Art a social 
activity 



that it will be well to make an attempt at clarification. 
Art is too commonly regarded as a luxury — a superfluity 
that may serve to occupy the leisure of the well-to-do — a 
kind of embroidery upon the edge of life that' may be 
affixed or discarded at will. Whereas, art is a factor that 
is fundamental in human life and development, a factor 
that has entered into the being of the race from the dawn 
of reason. Its products, which antedate written history 
by thousands of years, form the most reliable source of 
information we possess of the habits and thoughts of pre- 
historic man. It has been the medium of expression of 
many of the choicest products of human thought through- 
out the ages. These products have been embodied in forms 
other than that of writing. Its functions are limited neither 
to the citizen, the community, nor the country; they extend 
beyond national bounds to the world at large. Art belongs 
to the brotherhood of man. It is no respecter of national- 
ities. It is obvious that in a general college course, a study 
of the religious, social, and political factors in civilization 
that does not include art among these factors is incom- 
plete. 

The question under discussion concerns the teaching of 
art to the candidate for the bachelor of arts degree, and this 
question will be solely kept in view. Since, however, 
graduates in science, engineering, law, medicine, etc., are 
not exempt from the needs of artistic culture, they too 
should have at least an effective minimum of art instruc- 
tion. 

Art is recognized as a social activity. It enters largely 
into such practical and utilitarian problems of the com- 
munity as town planning and other forms of civic improve- 
ment. As workers in such activities, college graduates are 
frequently called to serve on boards of directors and com- 
mittees which have such work in charge. To most of such 
persons, education in art comes as a post-collegiate activity. 
Surely the interests of the community would be promoted 
if the men and women into whose hands these interests are 
committed had had some formal instruction in art during 
their college years. 



The Teaching of Art 



477 



If by practical education we mean training which pre- 
pares the individual for living, then the study of an activity 
that so pervades human life should be included in the 
curriculum of even a so-called practical college course. 
Art education has a more important function than to pro- 
mote the love of the beautiful, to purify and elevate public 
taste, to awaken intellectual and spiritual desires, to create 
a permanent means of investing leisure. Important as all 
these purposes are, they are merely a part of a larger one 
— that of revealing to the student the relationship of art to 
living. 

Art expression has the quality of utmost flexibility. This I'lexibiiity 
flexibility appears also in art instruction, and it is for this expression 
reason that in no two institutions of higher learning is the "^e^e^^^i^^s 



problem of art instruction attacked in the same way. There 
is, consequently, a great diversity in the types of art courses, 
even in the college. 

The flexibility of art instruction is both advantageous and 
embarrassing. It is an advantage in that it can be adapted 
to almost any requirement. It can be applied to the occu- 
pations of the kindergarten, or it can be made an intensive 
study suitable for the graduate school. But this very 
breadth is also a source of weakness in that it tends to di- 
vert the attention from that precision of purpose which all 
formal instruction should have, however elementary or ad- 
vanced. It is apt to be too scattering in its aims. It is not 
easy to determine exact values either in the subject studied 
or in the accomplishment of the student. Estimates in art 
are, and should be, largely a matter of personal taste and 
opinion. They are not infrequently colored by prejudice, 
especially where the judgment of producing artists is in- 
voked. This, again, is as it should be. An artist who as- 
sumes toward all works of art a catholic attitude, weakens 
that intensity of view and of purpose which animates his 
enthusiasm. It can easily be understood that to a larger 
extent than in other subjects the nature and scope of art in- 
struction depends upon the personality of the instructor. 



flexibility of 
art instruc- 
tion 



478 College Teaching 

Values of The flexibility to which we have adverted adapts art in- 

art instruc- . . , . i • i • 

tion struction to diverse educational aims. 

In that it can be made to conduce to accurate observation 
of artistic manifestations, and to logical deduction there- 
from, it may be given a disciplinary purpose. In its 
highest development, to which only the specially gifted can 
attain, the ability to observe accurately and to deduce logi- 
cally demands the most exacting training of the eye, of the 
visual memory, and of the judgment. As an example of 
the exercise of this sort of discipline we may cite Professor 
Waldstein's recognition of a marble fragment in the form 
of a head in the Louvre as belonging to a metope of the 
Parthenon. When, after Professor Waldstein's suggestion 
of the probable connection, a plaster cast of the head was 
taken to the British Museum and placed upon the headless 
figure of one of the metopes, the surfaces of fracture were 
found to correspond.^ The most useful application of this 
ability lies in the correct attribution of works of art to their 
proper schools and authorship. Signor Morelli in his 
method of identification used a system that is almost 
mechanical, yet the evidence supplied by concurrence or 
discrepancy of form in the delineation of anatomical details 
was supplemented by a highly cultivated sense for style, for 
craftsmanship, and for color as well as by an extensive 
historical knowledge. 

In that art instruction cultivates taste and the apprecia- 
tion of works of art, it has a cultural purpose. By many 
persons it is assumed that this is its sole value. 

In that it serves to illuminate the study of the progress 
of civilization, it has an informative purpose. 

In that it enables the technical student to correlate his 
work with that of past and present workers, it aids 
in the preparation for professional studies. 

Art has been defined as " the harmonic expression of the 
emotions." - Accepting this definition as a modified con- 

^Waldstein: Essays on the Art of Pheidias, Cambridge University 

Press, 1885, pages 95 et seq. 
2 Neiv Princeton Review, II, 29. 



The Teaching of Art 479 

densation of Tolstoi's definition, it is clear that in a work Difference 
of art two separate personalities are involved — that which techScai 
makes the expression, and the other to whom the expres- and lay 
sion is addressed; thus, there are artists on the one hand, art one of 
and the public on the other. Since we shall have to speak ©mpiiasis 
of two distinct classes of students, — namely, those who 
are in training as future artists (as architects, painters, 
scupltors, designers, etc.), and those who are taking courses 
in the understanding or appreciation of art, — it will be con- 
venient in this discussion to refer to the former as art stu- 
dents and to the latter as lay students. 

Formal art instruction has been offered by colleges to 
both these groups. It is evident that for the training of the 
art student emphasis must be placed upon the technique of 
creative work, whereas for the lay student emphasis must be 
placed upon the study of the theory and the history of art. 
It would seem, however, that these two methods are not 
mutually exclusive; nor should they be, for the art student 
would surely gain by a study of the principles of art and 
its history, while the lay student would profit by a certain 
amount of practice directed by an observance of the prin- 
ciples. 

Mr. Duncan Phillips, in an article entitled " What Instruc- 
tion in Art Should the College A.B. Course Offer to the 
Future Writer on Art? " proposes a hypothetical course in 
which " the ultimate intention would be to awaken the 
aesthetic sensibilities of the youthful mind, to encourage the 
emergence of the artists and art critics, and the establish- 
ment of a residue of well-instructed appreciators." ^ 

This proposal assumes the desirability of the completion 
of a general course designed for college students, before 
beginning the special courses designed for those individuals 
whose aptitudes seem to fit them for successful careers as 
artists on the one hand, or as successful writers on art, 
or art instructors on the other. 

In this place the question of professional training will 
not be discussed. The courses under consideration are 

1 The American Magazine of Art, Vol. 8, No. 5, page 177. 



480 



College Teaching 



A general 
course of 
study — 
Must "be 
adjusted to 
local con- 
ditions 



designed to serve the group of lay students from which 
specialists may, from time to time, emerge. It is of the 
utmost importance that provision for the further training 
of such specialists should be made in the college, in the 
postgraduate school, or in an allied professional school 
of art. 

In view of the great diversity in the treatment of the 
subject in different colleges, it will be impossible to pre- 
sent a series of courses that might, under other conditions, 
be representative of a general practice throughout the 
country. On the other hand, the attempt to make an epi- 
tome of the various methods in use at the more important 
colleges would result in the presentation of a succession of 
unrelated statements drawn from catalogues which would 
be hardly less exasperating to the reader than it would be 
for him to follow, successively, the outlines as presented in 
the catalogues themselves. Various summaries of these 
outlines have been made, and to these the reader is re- 
ferred.^ 

An attempt is here made to set forth a programme 
which is offered as a suggestion, upon which actual courses 
may be based, with such modifications as are demanded by 
local conditions, the number and personal training of the 
teaching staff, and the physical equipment available. 

The task before the college art instructor is to culti- 
vate the lay student's understanding and appreciation of the 
works of art and to develop an ardent enthusiasm for his 

1 Woodward, W. " Art Education in the Colleges," Art Education 
in the Public Schools of the United States, edited by J. P. Haney; 
American Art Annual, New York, 1908. 

Ankeney. J. S., Woodward, W., Lake, E. J., " Final Report of the 
Committee on the Condition of Art Instruction in Colleges and Uni- 
versities." Seventeenth Annual Report of the Western Drawing 
and Manual Training Association. Minneapolis, 1910. 

Kelley, C. F., "Art Education." Report of the Commissioner of 
Education, Vol. I, Chap. XV, Washington, D. C, 1915. 

Smith, E. B., The Study of the History of Art in the Colleges and 
Universities of the United States. University Press, Princeton, 
1912. 



art in- 
struction 



The Teaching of Art 481 

subject, tempered by good taste. This understanding will 

be based upon a workable body of principles which the 

student can use in making his artistic estimates and choices. 

Such a body of principles will constitute his theory of art. 

Art instruction for lay students may be presented in two ^^° 

■' J r methods of 

ways : presenting 

1. By the study of theory supplemented by the experi- 
mental application of theory to practice, as by drawing, to lay 
design, etc. ^*'^^""*" 

2. By the study of theory supplemented by an applica- 
tion of theory to the analysis and estimation of works of 
art as they are presented in a systematic study of the history 
of art. 

Consider now the relation of practice and history to 
theory: 

First as to practice: Art instructors are divided into 
three camps on the question of giving to the lay student 
instruction in practice: (1) Those who believe that not only 
is practice unnecessary in the study of theory, but actually 
harmful; (2) those who believe that practice will aid in a 
study of the theory of art; (3) Those who believe that prac- 
tice is indispensable and who would, therefore, require that 
all students supplement their study of the theory of art by 
practice. As may be surmised, by far the largest number 
of advocates is found in the middle division. 

One form of practice is Representation. In this form 
the student begins by drawing in freehand very simple ob- 
jects either in outline or mass, and proceeds through more 
advanced exercises in drawing from still life, to drawing 
and painting of landscape and the human figure. With the 
addition of supplementary studies, such as anatomy, per- 
spective, modeling, composition, craft work, theory, history, 
etc., this would be, broadly speaking, the method followed 
in schools of art, where courses, occupying from two to four 
or five years, are given, intended primarily for those who 
expect to make some sort of creative art their vocation. 

It is this kind of work which opponents to practice for 
the lay student have in mind. They claim that only by 



482 



College Teaching 



Relative 
value of 
freehand 
drawing 
and design 



long and severe training can he produce such works a» 
will give satisfaction to him or to others who examine his 
handiwork. They contend that the understanding of works 
of art is not dependent upon ability to produce a poor ex- 
ample. They offer many amusing analogies as arguments 
against practice courses for lay students. They maintain 
that the proof of the pudding is in the eating, rather than in 
the making; that to enjoy music one need not practice five- 
finger exercises; that other creatures than domestic fowls 
are capable of judging of the quality of eggs; that to ap- 
preciate the beauty of a tapestry it is not necessary to ex- 
amine the reverse side. It will perhaps be sufficient, for 
the present, to point out that in so far as such alleged anal- 
ogies can be submitted for arguments, they are equally ap- 
plicable to laboratory courses in any subject which is stud- 
ied with a non-professional or non-vocational purpose. 

It is true, however, that such a course as that outlined 
above demands a large amount of time, compared with the 
results attained; and while successful courses in Representa- 
tion are offered in certain colleges, the great m-ass of col- 
lege students, who cannot hope to acquire a high degree of 
skill, would hesitate to devote a large part of their train- 
ing to technical work, even if college faculties were willing 
to grant considerable proportions of credit for it toward the 
bachelor of arts degree. 

It will be understood by the reader that the value of ele- 
mentary freehand drawing as a means of discipline or as an 
aid to the technical student is not under discussion. The 
value of drawing as a fundamental language for such pur- 
poses is universally admitted. The questions are these: 
Can some form of practice in art be used to aid in the under- 
standing of the principles of art? Is representative draw- 
ing the only form of practice available for the lay student 
who undertakes the study of art? Fortunately, the advo- 
cates of practice can offer an alternative; namely Design. 
Mr. Arthur Dow distinguishes between the Drawing method 
(Representation) and the Design method by calling 
the former Analytical and the latter Synthetical. In 



The Teaching of Art 483 

an article on "Archaism in Art Teaching"^ he says: 
" I wish to show that the traditional ' drawing method ' of 
teaching art is too weak to meet the new art criticism and 
new demands, or to connect with vocational and industrial 
education in an effective way; but that the ' Design method ' 
is broad and strong enough to do all of these things." 

" The drawing method," he continues, " is analytic, deal- 
ing with the small, the details, the application of art; the 
design method is synthetic, dealing with wholes, unities, 
principles of art." 

Mr. Dow carries his exposition into the application of the 
Design method to vocational work, but it can be used with 
equal effect in supplementing the lay student's study of art. 

But the questions immediately arise: Is not a prepara- 
tion as long and arduous required to make a designer as to 
make a painter or a sculptor? And is not the half-baked 
designer in as sorry a plight as the half-baked artist of any 
kind? The answer to both is simple: The lay student is 
not in any degree a painter or a sculptor or a designer, 
neither is he in training for any of these professions. The 
advantage of the Design method is, that with no skill what- 
soever in drawing, the beginner in the study of art can apply 
to his own efforts the same principles of design which have 
from time immemorial entered into the creation of great 
works of art. The college freshman planning a surface de- 
sign with the aid of " squared " paper is applying the same 
principles that guided the hand of Michelangelo as it swept 
across the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 

Such principles as symmetry, balance, rhythm, emphasis, 
harmony in form, mass, value, and color can be inculcated 
by solving the simplest as well as the most complicated 
problems. A graded series of exercises can be undertaken 
by the student that will, with a comparatively small amount 
of manual skill carry him a considerable distance in the 
understanding of the principles of design upon which all 
creative art rests. Another advantage is that, in the process, 

"^Nineteenth Annual Report, Western Drawing and Manual Training 
Association, Cincinnati, 1912, page 19. 



484 College Teaching 

considerable skill in freehand drawing also can be acquired. 
But this advantage is merely incidental. 

The greatest value lies in the fact that the Design method 
offers to the student an excellent means of self-expression. 
The student, through no fault of his, is too prone to absorb 
and too little inclined to yield of the fruits of his knowl- 
edge. Herein lies a partial remedy for the tendency of col- 
lege students to make receptacles of their minds into which 
knowledge is poured through the ear by listening to lec- 
tures, or through the eye by reading. Herein is a means 
of overcoming mental inertia, for, certainly, the solution 
of a problem in design calls for thought — the amount of 
mental exertion being commensurate with the difficulty of 
the problem. In this, the Design method is superior to the 
Representation method, though it would be an error to 
assume that freehand drawing is chiefly a manual opera- 
tion. Such an error is entertained by those only who never 
have learned to draw. Another considerable value lies 
in the fact that even if the lay student of design should in 
later life never set hand to paper, — as he probably will not, 
any more than he who has taken courses in drawing and 
painting will ever attempt to paint a picture, — yet he has 
come into practical contact with the leading principles of 
art, and has gained a knowledge that can be applied not 
merely to the discriminating understanding of the artistic 
qualities of the exhibits in art museums or in private gal- 
leries, but to the art of every day. It can be applied to the 
estimating of the artistic value of a poster, a book cover, 
or a title page; to the choosing of wall paper; to the arrang- 
ing of the furniture in a room; to the laying out of a garden; 
to intelligent cooperation in the designing of a house or 
in replanning, on paper at least, the street system of a 
city; or to the selecting of a design for a public memorial. 
It is not to be assumed that in thus exercising a cultivated 
taste he would always make conscious application of the 
principles of design in making his estimates. These would 
have so entered into his habit of thought that he would 
unconsciouslv make what Mr. Dow calls " fine choices." 



The Teaching of Art 485 

The educational value of the Design method is almost 
universally recognized in the art departments of our public 
schools and in our art schools, and it is probable that when 
its aims and methods are better understood by our college 
faculties, its disciplinary, cultural, and informative value 
will be more widely recognized in the college of liberal 
arts, and that it will take equal rank with theme and report 
writing as a means of cultivating a taste for literature, with 
the practice of harmony and counterpoint as a means of 
appreciating music, and with laboratory work in acquiring 
knowledge of a science. 

Next, consider art history as a means of inculcating Arthis- 
the principles of art. It is evident that the emotions or ^^^sot 

feelinsfs of the artist and the methods he employs to express inculcating 

DriuciT)l6s 

them may be studied in such masterpieces as the Hermes of art 
of Praxiteles and the Lincoln of St. Gaudens. In either he 
may observe the application of the principles of balance, 
mass, repose, harmony, and the analysis of character. In 
either he may study the technique which involves the ma- 
terial of the statues, the tools employed, and the manner of 
working. 

There is, however, great advantage in considering such 
examples in their place in the evolution of art, and their 
significance in their relation to the social and political 
development of the human race — in other words, in study- 
ing systematically the history and development of art. 

Instruction in history of art is not without its pitfalls. 
It is too apt to lapse into a mere listing of names and dates 
of artists and their work, with the introduction of interest- 
ing biographical details and some discussion limited to the 
subjects treated in selected examples. It is often too much 
concerned with who, when, and where and not sufficiently 
with why and how. A person may possess a large fund 
of the facts of art history and yet have but little understand- 
ing or appreciation of the aims and underlying principles 
of art production. It should never be forgotten that for 
the college student the history of art is merely a convenient 
scheme or system upon which to base discussions of the 



486 



College Teaching 



Years in 
which 
art courses 
should be 
offered 



Organiza- 
tion and 
content of 
courses in 
art 



principles of art as involved in the works themselves, an 
outline for the study of the artistic affiliations of any artist 
with the great company of his antecedents, his contem- 
poraries, and his successors. The instructor should never 
regard practice or history as ends in themselves, but as 
means to the development of the understanding. 

In some colleges only the more advanced students are per- 
mitted to take art courses. It does not seem wise thus to 
limit the years in which courses may be taken. An elemen- 
tary course should be offered in the freshman year, while 
other courses of increasing difficulty should be offered in 
each of the succeeding years. The greatest variety is seen 
in the colleges throughout the country in the amount of 
art taught, and the amount of credit given toward the 
A.B. degree. When the subject is elected as a " minor," 
it should be one-tenth to one-eighth of all the work under- 
taken by a candidate for the bachelor's degree; while a 
"major" elective usually should cover from one-fifth to 
one-fourth of all the work of a candidate for the same 
degree. Some zealous advocates maintain that a certain 
amount of art training should be required for gradua- 
tion. Valuable as art training would be to every 
graduate, it does not seem wise to make art a required 
subject in the curriculum. To compel men and women 
to study art against their will would destroy much of the 
charm of the subject both for the teacher and the student. 
Unless the subject is pursued with enthusiasm by both, it 
loses its value. 

The courses suggested are as follows: 

Course I (Freshman year). Introduction to the study 
of art. A study of the various forms of artistic expres- 
sion, together with the principles which govern those 
forms. The study would be carried on (1) by means 
of lectures, (2) by discussions led by the instructor and 
carried on by members of the class, (3) by laboratory 
or studio practice in the application of the principles 
of art expression to graded problems in design, (4) by 
collateral reading, (5) by the occasional writing of themes 



TJie Teaching of Art 487 

and reports, (6) by excursions to art collections (public 
and private), artists' studios, and craft shops. 

Some of the topics for lectures and discussion would 
be: Primitive art and the factors which control its rise 
and development; principles of harmony; design in the 
various arts; an outline study of historic ornament; com- 
position in architecture, painting, and sculpture; concept 
in art, with a study of examples drawn from the master 
works of all ages; processes in the artistic crafts; applica- 
tion of the principles of design to room decoration. 

The studio or laboratory work would include: Applica- 
tiori of the principles of design; spacing of lines and 
spots; borders and all-over designs achieved by repetition 
of various units; studies in symmetry and balance; color 
study, including hue, value, intensity; exercises in color 
harmony; problems in form and proportions, decoration 
of given geometrical areas; applications to practical uses; 
studies in form and color from still life; use of char- 
coal, brush, pastel, water color; simple exercises in 
pictorial composition; problems in simplification neces- 
sitated by technique; application of principles of design 
to room decoration. (This course would be prerequisite 
for all subsequent courses in practice.) 

Course II (Sophomore year). A general course in the 
history of art. A consideration of the development of the 
arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting from prehis- 
toric periods to recent times. In this course emphasis 
would be laid upon the periods of higher attainments in 
artistic expression, and the discussions would be directed 
toward the qualities of great masterpieces rather than 
toward those of the multitude of lesser works. 

The work would be carried on (1) by means of 
lectures; (2) by discussions led by the instructor and 
carried on by members of the class; (3) by collateral 
reading; (4) by study of original works of art, photo- 
graphs, and other forms of reproduction; (5) by the 
writing of themes and reports; (6) by visits to art 
galleries and artists' studios. (This course would be pre- 



488 College Teaching 

requisite for all subsequent courses in history, etc.) 
Following these two general courses there should be 
two groups of courses: Group A, Practice courses: 
Group Bi History courses. Candidates for the A.B. de- 
gree who expect to take postgraduate work in creative art 
or in the teaching of creative art would elect chiefly 
from Group A. Lay students who are candidates for the 
A.B. degree and who expect to make writing or criticism 
in art, or teaching of art to lay students, or art museum 
work their vocation, would elect chiefly from Group B; 
as would, also, those composing the greater number, who 
study art as one means of acquiring general culture. 

In the following lists of courses the grade of each 
course is indicated by a roman numeral placed after the 
title of the course, the indications being as follows: 

I. Elementary (primarily for freshmen and sopho- 
mores). 
II. Intermediate (primarily for sophomores and 
juniors). 

III. Advanced (primarily for juniors and seniors). 

IV. Graduate (primarily for seniors and graduates). 

Beyond these indications no attempt is here made to pre- 
scribe the subdivisions of the courses, nor the number of 
hours per week, nor the number of weeks per year in each 
course. 

GROUP a: practice courses 

Al Freehand Drawing. (I) Drawing in charcoal and 
pencil from simple objects, plaster casts, still life, etc. 
Elements of perspective with elementary problems. 

A2 Freehand Drawing (continued). (11) Drawing in 
charcoal, pencil, pen and ink, brush (monochrome in 
water color) from plaster casts, still life and the costumed 
figure. Out-of-door sketching. 

A3 Color (Water Color or Oil Color). (II) Drawing 
in color from still life and the costumed figure. Out-of- 
door sketching. 



The Teaching of Art 489 

A4 Modeling. (Ill) Modeling in clay from casts of 
antique sculpture and of architectural ornament as an aid 
to the study of form and proportion. 

AS Advanced Design. (Ill) Theory and practice. (Con- 
tinuation of Course I. Introduction to the study of art.) 

A6, A7, . . . etc. Advanced Courses in Drawing, Paint- 
ing, Modeling, and Applied Design (IV) selected from the 
following: Studies in various media from life. Compo- 
sition. Illustration. Portrait work. Practical work in 
pottery, bookbinding, enameling, metal work, interior deco- 
ration, wood carving, engraving, etching. These courses 
would be supplemented by lectures on the theory and prin- 
ciples of art. Topics of such lectures would be: Theory 
of Design, Composition, Technique of the Various Arts, 
Artistic Anatomy, Perspective, Shades and Shadows, etc. 

GROUP b: history courses 

Bl History of Ancient Art. (II) 
B2 History of Roman and Medieval Art. (\\) 
B3 History of Renaissance Art in Italy. (Ill) 
B4 History of Modern Art. (Ill) History of art in 
Western Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- 
turies. 

B5, B6, . . . etc. History of ^Special Periods; Con- 
sideration of Special Forms of Art, and of Great Masters 
in Art (IV) selected from the following: Art of Primi- 
tive Greece, Greek Sculpture, Greek Vases, Early Christian 
and Byzantine Architecture, History of Mosaic; Medieval 
Illumination-; Sienese Painters of the Thirteenth and 
Fourteenth Centuries; Florentine Painting; Domestic 
Architecture of Various Countries; Leonardo da Vinci 
and His Works; Art of the Netherlands; History of 
Mural Painting; History and Principles of Engraving; 
Prints and Their Makers; Chinese and Japanese Art; Co- 
lonial Architecture in America; Painting and Sculpture in 
America, etc., etc. 

No attempt will here be made to comment upon the 



490 



College Teaching 



Teaching 
equipment 
for college 
courses in 
art 



general furnishing and equipment of lecture rooms, labora- 
tories, and studios. Nevertheless, some reference to the 
special teaching equipment is necessary for the further 
consideration of the methods of teaching. 

Illustrations are of the greatest importance in the study 
of art. The best illustrations are original works of art. 
For manifest reasons these are not usually available in the 
classroom, and the teacher is dependent upon facsimiles 
and other reproductions. These take the form of copies^ 
replicas, casts, models, photographs, stereopticon slides, 
prints in black and white and in color, including the 
ubiquitous picture postal card. 

The collections of public art museums and of private 
galleries are of great value for illustrative purposes; but 
of still greater value to the student is the departmental 
museum, with which, unfortunately, but few colleges are 
equipped. Some colleges have been saddled by well-mean- 
ing donors with collections of various kinds of works of art 
which are but ill related to the instruction given in the de- 
partment of art. The collections of the college museum 
need not be large but they should be selected especially with 
their instructional purpose in view. The problems of ex- 
pense debars most colleges from establishing museums of 
art; but with a modest annual appropriation a working col- 
lection can be gradually gathered together. A collection 
which is the result of gradual growth and of careful con- 
sideration will usually be of greater instructional value than 
one which is acquired at one time. 

An institution which owns a few original works of 
painting, sculpture, and the crafts of representative masters 
is indeed fortunate, but even institutions whose expenditures 
for this purpose are slight may possess at least a few 
original lithographs, engravings, etchings, etc., in its col- 
lection of prints. 

Fortunately, there are means whereby some of the un- 
obtainable originals of the great public museums and pri- 
vate collections of the world may be represented in the 
college museums by adequate reproductions. The methods 



The Teaching of Art 491 

of casting in plaster of Paris, in bronze and other ma- 
terials; of producing squeezes in papier mache; and of 
reproducing by the galvano-plastic process, are used for 
making facsimiles of statues, vases, terra cottas, carved 
ivories, inscriptions and other forms of incised work, gems, 
coins, etc., at a cost which, when compared with that of 
originals, is trivial.^ Paintings, drawings, engravings, 
etc., are often admirably reproduced by various photo- 
graphic and printing processes in color or black and white. 

Generally speaking, the most valuable adjunct of the 
college art museum or of the college art library is the 
collection of photographs properly classified and filed for 
ready reference by the instructor or student. 

A specially designed museum building would present 
opportunities for service that would extend beyond the 
walls of the art department, but if such a building is not 
available, a single well-lighted room furnished with suit- 
able cabinets and wall cases, and with ample wall space 
for the display of paintings, prints, charts, etc., would be 
of great service. 

A departmental library of carefully chosen books on the 
theory, history, and the practice of the various arts, to- 
gether with current and bound numbers of the best art 
periodicals of America and of foreign countries, is indis- 
pensable. 

Methods will naturally depend somewhat upon the size Methods of 
of the class. In large classes — of, say, more than forty 
— the lecture method, supplemented by section meetings 
and conferences, would usually be followed. In the fol- 
lowing discussion it is assumed that fhe classes will not 
exceed forty. 

Under the head of Methods of Teaching are here in- 
cluded: Work in Class and Work outside of Class. 

The work in class consists of lectures; discussions by the 
members of the class; laboratory or studio work; excur- 
sions. There is no worse method than that of exclusive 

1 Robinson, D, M., " Reproductions of Classical Art," Art and Archae- 
ology, Vol. V, No. 4, pages 221-234. 



492 College Teaching 

lecturing by the instructor. If the methods employed do 
not induce the student to do his own thinking, they have 
but little value. Much of the instructor's time will be oc- 
cupied in devising methods by which the students them- 
selves will contribute to their own and their fellows' ad- 
vancement. 

Discussions led by the instructor and carried on by the 
members of the class should be frequent. From time to 
time a separate division of a general topic should be as- 
signed to each member of the class, who will prepare him- 
self to present his part of the topic before the class either 
by reading a paper or otherwise. Discussions by the 
members of the class, concluded by the instructor, should 
generally follow this presentation. Topics for investiga- 
tion, study, and discussion should be so selected as to re- 
quire the students to make application of their study to 
their daily life and environment. In this way their critical 
interest in the design of public and private buildings, of 
monuments, and of the innumerable art productions which 
they see about them would be stimulated. 

For the purpose of illustrating lectures and aiding in 
discussions, prints and photographs may be shown either 
directly or through the medium of the reflectoscope. Or, 
they may be transferred to lantern slides and shown by 
means of the stereopticon. To a limited extent the Lu- 
miere color process has been used in preparing slides. 

The methods of laboratory and studio work have already 
been briefly treated under the head of Courses of Instruc- 
tion, and hardly need to be further amplified here. 

It has already been stated that original works of art 
are the best illustrations, and that these are but rarely 
available within the walls of the college. Instructors in 
institutions which are situated within or near to large 
centers of population can usually supply this deficiency 
by arranging visits to museums and other places where 
works of art are preserved and exhibited; and to artists' 
studios and to workshops where works of art are produced. 
Instructors in institutions which are not so situated may 



The Teaching of Art 493 

supply the deficiency, in some measure, by arranging for 
temporary exhibitions in the museum or other rooms of the 
department. Rotary exhibitions of paintings, prints, craft- 
work, sculpture, designs, examples of students' work, etc., 
may be arranged whereby groups of institutions within con- 
venient distances from each other may share the benefits , 
offered by such exhibitions, as well as the expense of as- 
semblage, transportation, and insurance. In arranging for 
such temporary exhibitions it is essential that only works 
of the highest quality, of their kind, should be selected. 

Selections can best be made personally by the instructor 
or by capable and trustworthy agents who are thoroughly 
informed as to the purpose of the exhibition and as to the 
needs of the institutions forming the circuits. Such rotary 
exhibitions possess a wider usefulness than that of serving 
as illustrative material for the college department of art: 
they serve also as an artistic stimulus to the membe.rs of the 
college at large, and to the community in which the college 
is situated.^ 

The work of students outside of class has already been 
mentioned. It consists of collateral reading, the study of 
prints and photographs, and the preparation of written 
themes and reports. Notwithstanding the lavish produc- 
tion of books relating to art, there are but very few that 
are suitable for use as college textbooks. The instructor 
will usually assign collateral reading from various authors. 

In attempting to measure the success or failure of the Testing 

... results of 

work, the teacher must ask himself. What do our college artin- 

graduates who have taken art courses possess that is lack- struction 

ing in those who have not taken such courses? 

The immediate test of the results of the work is in the 

attitude of mind of the students. Do they think differently 

about works of art from what they did before entering the 

courses? Is there a change in their habit of thought? 

Have they done no more than accept the lessons they have 

1 Rotary art exhibitions for educational purposes are arranged by 
the American Federation of Arts, 1741, New York Avenue, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 



494 College Teaching 

been taught, or have they so absorbed them and made them 
their own that they are capable of self-expression in mak- 
ing their estimates of works of art? These questions may 
be answered by the result of the written examination and 
by the oral quiz. 

It must be confessed that the chief purpose of art in- 
struction in the college is to supply a lack in our national 
and private life. Citizens of the older communities of 
Europe pass their lives among the accumulated art treasures 
of past ages. The mere daily contact with such forms of 
beauty engenders a taste for them. Partly through our 
Puritan origin, partly through our preoccupation with the 
development of the material resources of our country, we, 
as a people, have failed to cultivate some of the imponder- 
able things of the spirit. So far as we have had to do 
with its creation, our environment in town and village is 
generally lacking in artistic charm. 

The study by lay students of the art of the past has 
one chief object; namely, to train them to understand the 
works of the masters in order that they may discriminate 
between what is beautiful and what is meretricious in the 
art of the present day; to learn the lessons of art from 
the monoliths of Egypt, the tawny marbles of ancient 
Greece, the balanced thrusts of the Gothic cathedral, the 
gracious and reverent harmonies of the primitives, the 
delicate handicrafts of the Orient, the splendors of the 
Renaissance, the vibrant colors of the latest phase of im- 
pressionism, and to apply these lessons in the search for 
hidden elements of beauty in nature and art iii their own 
country and in their own lives and surroundings. 

Believing, as he does, in the value of artistic culture, 
it becomes the duty of the college art instructor to teach 
with enthusiasm unmarred by prejudice; to cultivate in 
the minds of his students a catholic receptivity to all that 
is sincere in artistic expression; to open up avenues of 
thought in the minds of those whose lives would otherwise 
be barren of artistic sympathy; to cull the best from the 
experience of the past, and, by its help, to impart to his 



The Teaching of Art 495 

hearers some of his own enthusiasm; for their lives cannot 
fail to touch at some point the borderlands of the magic 
realm of art. 

Holmes Smith 

Washington University 

Bibliography 

Ankeney, J. S., Lake, E. J., and Woodward, W. Final Report of 
the Committee on the Condition of Art Work in Colleges and 
Universities. JFestern Drawing and Manual Training Associa- 
tion. Oak Park, Illinois, 1910. 

Ankeney, J. S. The Place and Scope of Art Education in the Uni- 
versity. Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, 
16th Annual Report. St. Louis, 1909. 

Beaux, Celia. What Instruction in Art Should the College A.B. 
Course Offer to the Future Artists? The American Magazine of 
Art. Washington, D. C, October, 1916. 

Blayney, T. L. The History of Art in the College Curriculum. Pro- 
ceedings of the American Federation of Arts. Washington, D. C, 
1910. 

Brooks, Alfred. The Study of Art in Universities. Education. 
Boston, February, 1901. 

Churchill, A. V. Art in the College Course. The Smith Alumnos 
Quarterly. New York, February, 1915. 

Clopath, H. The Scope and Organization of Art Instruction in the 
A. B. Course. Western Drawing and Manual Training Associa- 
tion, 17th Annual Report. Oak Park, Illinois, 1910. 

Cross, H. R. The College Degree in Fine Arts. Western Drawing 
and Manual Training Association, 17th Annual Report. Oak 
Park, Illinois, 1910. 

Dow, A. W. Anarchism in Art Teaching. Western Drawing and 
Manual Training Association, 19th Annual Report. Cincinnati, 
-1912. 

Dow, A. W. Theory and Practice of Teaching Art. Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University. 2d edition. New York, 1912. 

Dow, A. W. Modernism in Art. The American Magazine of Art. 
New York, January, 1917. 

Frederick, F. F. The Study of Fine Art in American Colleges and 
Universities; Its Relation to the Study in Public Schools. Ad- 
dresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association. 
Detroit, 1901. 

Heller, 0. Art as a Liberal Study. Western Drawing and Manual 
Training Association, 17th Annual Report. Oak Park, Illinois, 
• 1910. 

Jastrow, J. The place of the Study of Art in a College Course. 



496 College Teaching 

Western Drawing and Manual Training Association. Oak Park, 
Illinois, 1910. 

Kelley, C. F. Art in American Universities. Nation, 91: 74. New 
York, July 28, 1910. 

Kelley, C. F. Art Education. Report of the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation (Department of Interior, Bureau of Education). Wash- 
ington, D. C, 1915. 

Leonard, William J. The Place of Art in the American College. 
Education, 32; 597-607. Boston, June, 1912. 

Low, W. H. The Proposed Department of Art in Columbia Uni- 
versity. Scribners Magazine. New York, December, 1902. 

Mann, F. M. Cooperaton among Art Workers in Universities. West- 
ern Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual Re- 
port. St. Louis, 1909. 

Marshall, H. R. The Relation of the University to the Teaching of 
Art. Architectural Record. New York, April, 1903. 

Monroe, Paul (editor) . Art in Education, etc. Cyclopedia of Edu- 
cation. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1911. 

Norton, C. E. The Educational Value of the History of Art. Edu- 
cational Revieiv, New York, April, 1895. 

Phillips, Duncan. What Instruction in Art Should the College A.B. 
Course Offer to the Future Writer on Art? The American Mag- 
azine of Art. New York, March, 1917. 

PiCKARD, J. Message of Art for the Collegian. The American Mag- 
azine of Art. Washington, D. C, February, 1916. 

Robinson, D. M. Reproductions of Classical Art. Art and Archceol- 
ogy. Washington, D. C, April, 1917. 

Sargent, W. Instruction in Art in the United States. Biennial Sur- 
vey of Education in the United States 1916-18 (Department of 
the Interior, Bureau of Education) . Washington, D. C. 

Seelye, L. C. The Place of Art in the Smith College Curriculum. 
Educational Revieiv. New York, January, 1904. 

Smith, E. B. The History of Art in the Colleges and Universities of 
the United States. Princeton University Press. Princeton, 1912. 

Smith, Holmes. Art as an Integral Part of University Work. West- 
ern Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual Re- 
port. St. Louis, 1909. 

Smith, Holmes. The Future of the University Round Table. West- 
ern Drawing and Manual Training Association. Oak Park, Illi- 
nois, 1910. 

Smith, Holmes, Lake, E. J., and Marquand, A. The College Art 
Association of America. Report of Committee Appointed to In- 
vestigate the Condition of Art Instruction in the Colleges and 
Universities of the United States. School and Society. Garri- 
son, New York, August 26, 1916. 



The Teaching of Art 497 

Stanley, H. M. Our Education and the Progress of Art. Education. 
Boston, October, 1890. 

Swift, F. H. What Art Does for Life. Western Drawing and Man- 
ual Training Association, 18th Annual Report. Springfield, Illi- 
nois, 1911. 

Sylvester, F. O. Esthetic and Practical Values in Art Courses. 
Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual 
Report. St. Louis, 1909. 

Waldstein, C. The Study of Art in Universities. Harper & Broth- 
ers. New York, 1896. 

Walker, C. H. Art in Education. Western Draiving and Manual 
Training Association, 16th Annual Report. St. Louis, 1909. 

Woodward, W. Art Education in the Colleges. Art Education in the 
Public Schools of the United States. American Art Annual. 
New York, 1908. 

Wuerpel, E. H. The Relation of the Art School to the University. 
Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, 16th Annual 
Report. St. Louis, 1909. 

Zantzinger, C. C. Report of Committee on Education. Proceedings 
of the 47th Annual Convention of the American Institute of Arch- 
itects. Washington, D. C, December, 1913. 

Note. For numerous discussions of problems of college art teaching, 
the Bulletins of the College Art Association of America may be con- 
sulted. 



PART SIX 
Vocational Subjects 

CHAPTER 

XXV The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 

Ira 0. Baker 

XXVI The Teaching of Mechanical Drawing 

/. D. Phillips and H. D. Orth 

XXVII The Teaching of Journalism 

Talcott Williams 

XXVIII Business Education 

Frederick B. Robinson 



XXV 
THE TEACHING OF ENGINEERING SUBJECTS 

EACH of the preceding chapters of this volume treats 
of a subject which is substantially a unit in method 
and content; but the subjects assigned to this chapter in- 
clude a variety of topics which are quite diverse in scope 
and character. For example, such subjects as German and 
physics represent the work of single collegiate departments; 
while engineering subjects represent substantially the en- 
tire work of an engineering college, of which there are 
many in this country, each having a thousand or more 
students. It is necessary, then, to inquire as to the scope 
of this chapter. 

I. SCOPE OF THIS CHAPTER 

The contents of the representative four-year engineer- contents 
ing curriculum of the leading institutions may be classified j^g cur- 
about as in the table on page 502. In addition to the sub- ^^icuia 
jects listed, most institutions require freshmen to take gym- 
nasium practice and lectures on hygiene, and many colleges 
require freshmen, and some also sophomores, to take 
military drill and tactics. Formerly many institutions re- 
quired all engineering freshmen to take elementary shop 
work; but at present in most institutions this practice has 
been discontinued, owing to the establishment of manual- 
training high schools and to the development of other en- 
gineering subjects. 

The order of the subjects varies somewhat in the dif- 
ferent institutions. For example, instead of as in the table 
on page 502, rhetoric may be given in the sophomore year 
and language in the first. Again, in some institutions a lit- 
tle technical work is given in the freshman year. Further, 
the total number of semester-hours varies somewhat among 
the different institutions. However, the table is believed 
to be fairly representative. 

501 



502 



College Teaching 



Contents of Engineering Curricula 

The unit is a semester-hour; i.e., five class-periods a week for 

half a year. 



GENERAL SUBJECT 



Mechanical drawing and de- 
scriptive geometry 

Rhetoric 

Modern language 

Pure mathematics 

Science — physical and social. 

Theoretical and applied me- 
chanics 

Technical engineering 

Total 



COLLEGIATE YEAR 



10 
6 

10 
10 



36 



II 



36 



III IV 



10 
20 

36 



32 
36 



TOTAL 



10 
6 

8 
18 
29 

13 
60 

144 



The dif- 
ferent en- 
gineering 
curricula 



Below is a list of the principal four-year curricula offered 
by the engineering colleges of this country. The list con- 
tains forty different engineering curricula. No one in- 
stitution offers all of these, but some of the larger and 
better equipped offer fifteen or sixteen different curricula 
for which a degree is given. 

1. Architecture (which is usually classified as an en- 
gineering subject) : general architecture; architectural de- 
sign; architectural construction. 

2. Ceramics engineering: general ceramics and ceramics 
engineering; ceramics; ceramics engineering. 

3. Chemical engineering: general chemical engineering; 
metallurgical engineering; gas engineering; pulp and 
paper engineering; electro-chemical engineering. 

4. Civil engineering: general civil engineering; railway 
civil engineering; municipal engineering; structural en- 
gineering; topographic or geodetic engineering; hydraulic 
engineering; irrigation engineering; highway engineering. 

5. Electrical engineering: general electrical engineering; 
telephone engineering; electrical design; power-plant de- 
sign; electrical railway engineering. 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 503 



6. Marine engineering: general marine engineering; 
naval architecture; marine engineering. 

7. Mechanical engineering: general mechanical engi- 
neering; steam engineering; railway mechanical engineer- 
ing; hydro-mechanical engineering; machine design and 
construction; heating, ventilating, and refrigerating; in- 
dustrial engineering; automobile engineering; aeronautical 
engineering. 

8. Mining engineering: general mining engineering; 
metallurgical engineering; coal mining; ore mining. 

The first engineering curriculum established was civil 
engineering, which was so called to distinguish it from 
military engineering. At first the course contained only 
a little technical work, but in course of time specialized 
work was increased; and later courses were established in 
mining and mechanical engineering, and more recently 
followed specialized courses in architecture, electrical en- 
gineering, marine engineering, chemical engineering, and 
ceramic engineering — about in the order named. The 
order of the various special courses in the several groups 
above is roughly that of their establishment. 

In the preceding list are eight groups of curricula, each Number 
of which contains about 60 semester-hours peculiar to it- nleSng 
self; and, considering only a single curriculum in each subjects 
of the eight groups, there are 480 semester-hours of 
specialized work. In addition there are in the list thirty- 
two subdivisions, each of which differs from the parent 
by at least 10 semester-hours. Hence the total number 
of engineering subjects offered is at least 800 semester- 
hours. It is safe to assume that for administrative rea- 
sons, each 3 semester-hours on the average represents a 
distinct title or topic, and that therefore the engineering 
colleges of the country offer instruction in 267 different 
engineering subjects. 

However, the diversity is not so great as the preceding 
statement seems to imply, since for convenience in program 
making and in bookkeeping many subjects are listed under 
two or more heads. For example, a subject which runs 



504 College Teaching 

through two semesters will for administrative reasons ap- 
pear under two different heads in the above computations. 
Again, the lecture or textbook work in a subject will usually 
appear under one head and the laboratory work under 
a separate title. Finally, some subjects which differ but 
little in character may for convenience be listed under two 
different titles. If the subjects that are subdivided for 
the above reasons were listed under a single head, the 
number of topics would be reduced something like 20 to 
25 per cent. 

Therefore, the topics of engineering instruction which 
differ materially in character number about 200. This, 
then, is the field assigned to this chapter. Obviously it is 
impossible to consider the several subjects separately. 

II. DIFFERENTIATION IN ENGINEERING CURRICULA 

For a considerable number of years there has been much 
discussion by both college teachers and practicing engin- 
eers concerning differentiation in engineering curricula; 
and the usual conclusion is that undue differentiation is 
detrimental. But nevertheless specialization has gone on 
comparatively rapidly and extensively — as shown in the 
previous article. Since the degree of differentiation deter- 
mines in a large measure (1) the spirit with which a 
student does his work, (2) the method of teaching that 
should be employed, and (3) the results obtained, it will 
be wise briefly to consider the merits of specialization. 
The arguments against specialization have been more 
widely and more earnestly presented than those in favor of 
specialization. The usual arguments pro and con may 
be summarized as follows: 

1. It is frequently claimed that the undergraduate is in- 
capable of wisely choosing a specialty, and that hence 
specialization should come after a four-year course, — i. e., 
in the graduate school or by self-instruction after gradua- 
tion. But the parents and friends of a student usually 
help him in deciding upon a profession or on a special 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 505 

line of study, and therefore it is not likely that a very 
serious mistake will be made. Of necessity a decision 
must be made whether or not to seek a college education; 
and a decision must also be made between the great fields 
of knowledge, — liberal arts, agriculture, engineering, etc. 
If the student decides to take any branch of engineer- 
ing, he usually has his whole freshman year in which to 
make a further specialization. At the end of the soph- 
omore year the specialization has not gone very far; 
and therefore if the student finds he has made a mistake, 
it is not difficult to change. 

2. " The undergraduate seldom knows the field of his 
future employment, and hence does not have the data 
necessary for an intelligent decision." The young man 
will never have all of the data for such a decision until 
he has actually worked in that field for a time, and there 
is no reason why he should not make a decision and try 
some particular line of preparation. 

3. Some opponents of specialization claim that the more 
general the engineering training, the easier to obtain em- 
ployment after graduation; but this is not in harmony with 
the facts. The opposite is more nearly true. For ex- 
ample, who ever heard of a practicing engineer preferring 
a liberal arts student to a civil engineering student as a 
rodman? 

4. Specialized courses require that the college should 
have larger equipment and a more versatile staff. The 
larger institutions can prepare for specialized sections 
nearly as easily and cheaply as for duplicate sections; and 
institutions having only a few students or meager financial 
support should not offer highly specialized courses. 

5. The opponents of specialization claim that to be a 
successful specialist one should have a broad training, 
and that therefore the broader the curriculum the better. 
It is true that to be. a successful specialist requires a 
considerable breadth of knowledge, but that does not prove 
that the student should be required to get all of his general 
knowledge before he gives attention to matters peculiar 



506 College Teaching 

to his specialty. No engineer can be reasonably success- 
ful in any field with only the knowledge obtained in col- 
lege, whether that be general or special. 

6. It is claimed that specialization should be postponed 
to a fifth year. It seems to have been settled by experi- 
ence that four years is about the right length of the college 
course for the average engineering student, and that in 
that time he should test his fitness and liking for his 
future work by studying some of the subjects relating to 
his proposed specialized field. 

7. The chief reason in favor of specialization is that the 
field of knowledge is so vast that it is absolutely necessary 
for every college student — engineering or otherwise — 
to specialize; and in engineering this specialization is 
vitally important, since fundamental principles can be 
taught most effectively in connection with their application 
to specialized problems. In no other way is it possible 
to invest theoretical principles with definite meaning to the 
student, and by this process it is possible to transform 
abstract theory into glowing realities which under a com- 
petent teacher arouse the student's interest and even his 
enthusiasm. 

8. Specialization in engineering curricula is a natural 
outgrowth of the evolution of engineering knowledge, and 
is in harmony with sound principles of teaching. For 
example, all engineering students should have a certain 
amount of mechanical drawing; but the best results will 
be obtained if the civil engineer, after a study of the 
elementary principles, continues his practice in drawing 
by making maps, while the mechanical engineer continues 
his by making details of machinery. Both will do their 
work with more zest and much more efficiency than if both 
were compelled to make drawings which meant nothing 
to them except practice in the art of drawing. Similar 
illustration can be found throughout any well-arranged 
engineering curriculum. A vitally essential element in 
any educational diet is that the subject shall not pall upon 
the appetite of the student. He should go to every in- 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 507 

tellectual meal with a hearty gusto. The specialized 
course appeals more strongly to the ambition of the student 
than a general course. The engineering student selects 
a specialized course because he has an ambition to become 
an architect, a chemical engineer, a civil engineer, or per- 
haps a bridge engineer, a highway engineer, a mechanical 
engineer, or perhaps a heating engineer or an automobile 
engineer; and having an opportunity to study subjects in 
which he is specially interested, he works with zest and 
usually accomplishes much more than a student who is 
pursuing a course of study only remotely, if at all, re- 
lated to the field of his proposed activities after leaving 
college. Further, the more specialized the course, the 
greater the energy with which the student will work. 

Many of those who have discussed specialization seem 
to assume that the only, or at least the chief, purpose of 
an engineering education is to give technical information, 
and that specialization is synonymous with superficiality. 
From this point of view the aim of a college education 
is to give a student information useful in his future work, 
and the inevitable result is that the student iTas neither 
the intellectual power nor the technical knowledge to en- 
able him to render efficient service in any position in which 
he will work whole-heartedly. The weakness and super- 
ficiality of such a student, it is usually said, is due to ex- 
cessive specialization, while in reality it is primarily due 
to wrong methods of teaching. Within reasonable limits 
specialization has little or nothing to do with the result; 
and under certain conditions, as previously stated, speciali- 
zation helps rather than hinders intellectual development. 
If a subject has real educational value and is so taught as 
to train a student to see, to analyze, to discriminate, to 
describe, the more the specialization the better; but if a 
subject is taught chiefly to give unrelated information 
about details of practice, the more the specialization the 
less the educational value. 

10. Experience has conclusively shown that an engineer- 
ing student is very likely to slight a general subject in favor 



508 



College Teaching 



of a simultaneous technical or specialized subject. This 
fact, together with the necessity of a fixed sequence in 
technical engineering subjects, makes it practically impos- 
sible to secure any reasonable work in most general sub- 
jects when a student is at the same time carrying one or 
more technical studies. For these reasons it is necessary 
to make the later years of the curriculum nearly wholly 
technical, which makes specialization possible, if it does 
not invite it. 



Disciplinary 
values of 
engineering 
subjects 



III. AIM OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION 

The three elements of engineering education, as indeed 
of all education, should be development, training, and in- 
formation. The first is the attainment of intellectual 
power, the capacity for abstract conception and reasoning. 
The second includes the formation of correct habits of 
thought and methods of work; the cultivation of the ability 
to observe closely, to reason correctly, to write and speak 
clearly; and the training of the hand to execute. The third 
includes the acquisition of the thoughts and experiences of 
others, and of the truths of nature. The development of 
the mental faculties is by far the most important, since 
it alone confers that " power which masters all it touches, 
which can adapt old forms to new uses, or create new and 
better means of reaching old ends." Without this power 
the engineer cannot hope to practice his profession with 
any chance of success. The formation of correct habits of 
thinking and working, habits of observing, of classifying, 
of investigating, of discriminating, of proving instead of 
guessing, of weighing evidence, of patient perseverance, 
and of doing thoroughly honest work, is a method of using 
that power efficiently. The accumulation of facts is the 
least important. The power to acquire information and 
the knowledge of how to use it is of far greater value 
than any number of the most useful facts. The value of 
an education does not consist in the number of facts ac- 
quired, but in the ability to discover facts by personal 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 509 

observation and investigation and in the power to use these 
facts in deducing new conclusions and establishing funda- 
mental principles. There is no comparison between the 
value of a ton of horseshoe nails and the ability to make 
a single naiL 

The engineering student usually desires to reverse the utilitarian 
above order and assumes that the acquisition of informa- engineering 

tion, especially that directly useful in his proposed pro- ?"pj®cts: 
r • • 1 1111 r 1 . 1 information 

tession, is the most valuable element oi an education; and and training 

unfortunately some instructors seem to make the same mis- 
take. The truth is that methods of construction, details 
of practice, mechanical appliances, prices of materials and 
labor, change so rapidly that it is useless to teach many 
such matters. However important such items are to the 
practicing engineer, they are of little or no use to the 
student; for later, when he does have need of them, 
methods, machines, and prices have changed so much that 
the information he acquired in college will probably be 
worse than useless. Technical details are learned of neces- 
sity in practice, and more easily then than in college; 
whereas in practice fundamental principles are learned 
with difficulty, if at all. A man ignorant of principles does 
not usually realize his own ignorance and limitations, or 
rather he is unaware of the existence of unknown prin- 
ciples. The engineering college should teach the prin- 
ciples upon which sound engineering practice is based, but 
should not attempt to teach the details of practice any 
further than is necessary to give zest and reality to the in- 
struction and to give an intelligent understanding of the 
uses to be made of fundamental principles. 

As evidence that technical information is not essential 
for success in an engineering profession, attention is called 
to the fact that a considerable number of men who took 
a course in one of the major divisions of engineering have 
practiced in another branch with reasonable success. The 
only collegiate training one of the most distinguished 
American engineers of the last generation had was a gen- 
eral literary course followed by a law course. Further, 



510 College Teaching 

a considerable number have successfully practiced engin- 
eering, after only a general college education, and this in re- 
cent years when engineering curricula have become widely 
differentiated. Examples in other lines of business could 
be cited to show that a knowledge of technical details is not 
the most important element in a preparation for a profes- 
sion or for business. The all-important thing is that the 
engineering student shall acquire the power to observe 
closely, to reason correctly, to state clearly, that he shall 
be able to extract information from books certainly and 
rapidly, and that he shall cultivate his judgment, initia- 
tive, and self-reliance. A student may have any amount 
of technical information, but if he seriously lacks any of 
the qualities just enumerated, he cannot attain to any con- 
siderable professional success. However, if he has these 
qualities to a fair degree, he can speedily acquire sufficient 
technical details to enable him to succeed fairly well. 

The chief aim of the engineering college should be to 
develop the intellectual power that will enable the student 
not only to acquire quickly the details of practice, but 
will also enable him ultimately to establish precedents and 
determine the practice of his times. Incidentally the en- 
gineering college should seek to expand the horizon and 
widen the sympathy of its students. In college classes 
there will be those who are either unable or unwilling to 
attain the highest educational ideals, and who will become 
only the hewers of wood and drawers of water of the en- 
gineering profession; but a setting before them of the high- 
est ideals and even an ineffective training in methods of 
work will prepare them the better to fill mediocre posi- 
tions. 

The nearly universal engineering college course requires 
four years. The field properly belonging to even a 
specialized curriculum is so wide and the importance of a 
proper preparation of the engineers of the future is so great 
as appropriately to require more than four years of time; 
but the consensus of opinion is that for various reasons 
only four years are available for undergraduate work — 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 511 

the only kind here under consideration. Hence it is of 
vital importance that the highest ideals shall be set before 
the engineering students and that the methods of instruc- 
tion employed shall be the best attainable. 



IV. METHODS OF TEACHING 

Instruction in technical engineering subjects is given by 
lectures, recitations from textbooks, assigned reading, 
laboratory work, surveying, field-practice, problems in de- 
sign, memoirs, and examinations. Each of these will be 
briefly considered. 

The term " lecture system " will be used to designate Lecture 
that method of instruction in which knowledge is presented ^^^ ^^ 
by the instructor without immediate questioning of, or dis- 
cussion by, the student. In the early history of engineer- 
ing education, when instruction in technical engineering 
subjects was beginning to be differentiated from other 
branches of education, the lecture was the only means of 
acquainting the student with either the principles or details 
of engineering practice, since textbooks were then few and 
unsatisfactory. But at present, when there are so many 
fields of technical knowledge in which there are excellent 
books, the lecture system is indefensible as a means either 
of communicating knowledge or of developing intellectual 
strength. 

It is a waste of the student's time to present orally that 
which can be found in print. At best the lecturer can 
present only about one third as much as a student could 
read in the same time; and, besides, the student can under- 
stand what he reads better than what he hears, since he 
can go more slowly over that which he does not under- 
stand. The lecturer moves along approximately uni- 
formly, while some students fail to understand one part, 
and others would like to pause over some other portion. 
A poor textbook is usually better than a good lecturer. 

It is a fundamental principle of pedagogy that there 
can be no development without the activity of the learner's 



512 College Teaching 

mind; and hence with the lecture system it is customary to 
require the student to take notes, and subsequently submit 
himself to a quiz or present his lecture notes carefully 
written up. If the student is required to take notes, either 
for future study or to be submitted, his whole time and 
attention are engrossed in writing; and at the close of the 
lecture, if it has covered any considerable ground, the 
student has only a vague idea of what has been said. 
Further, the notes are probably so incomplete as to af- 
ford inadequate material for future study. 

If the subject matter is really new and not found in 
print, the lecture should be reproduced for the student's 
use. It is more economical and more effective for the 
student to pay his share of the cost of printing, than to 
spend his time in making imperfect notes and perhaps ulti- 
mately writing them out more fully. 

The lecture system is less suitable for giving instruc- 
tion in engineering subjects than in general subjects, such 
for example as history, sociology, and economics, since 
technical engineering subjects usually include principles 
and more or less numerical data that must be stated briefly 
and clearly. 

If a student has had an opportunity to study a subject 
from either a textbook or a printed copy of the lecture 
notes, then comments by the teacher explaining some diffi- 
cult point, or describing some later development, or show- 
ing some other application or consequence of the prin- 
ciple, may be both instructive and inspiring; but the main 
work of teaching engineering subjects should be from care- 
fully prepared textbooks. However, an occasional formal 
lecture by an instructor or a practicing engineer upon some 
subject already studied from a textbook can be a means 
of valuable instruction and real inspiration, provided the 
lecture is well prepared and properly presented. 

In the preceding discussion the term " lecture "has been 
employed as meaning a formal presentation of information; 
but there is another form of lecture, a demonstration 
lecture, which consists of an explanation and discussion by 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 513 

the instructor of an experiment conducted before the class. 
The prime purpose of the experiment and the demonstration 
lecture is to explain and fix in mind general principles. 
This form of lecture is an excellent method of giving in- 
formation; and if the student is questioned as to the facts 
disclosed and is required to discuss the principles estab- 
lished, it is an effective means of training the student to 
observe, to analyze, and to describe. 

This system of instruction consists in assigning a lesson 
upon which the student subsequently recites. In subjects 
involving mathematical work, the recitation may consist of 
the presentation of the solution of examples or problems; 
but in engineering subjects the recitation usually consists 
either of answers to questions or of the discussion of a 
topic. 

The question may be either a " fact " question or a 
" thought " question. If the main purpose is to give in- 
formation, the " fact " question is used, the object being 
to determine whether the student has acquired a particular 
item of information. Not infrequently, even in college 
teaching, the question can be answered by a single word 
or a short sentence; and usually such a question, even if it 
does not itself suggest the answer, requires a minimum of 
mental effort on the part of the student. This method 
determines only whether the student has acquired a number 
of unrelated facts, and does not insure that he has any 
knowledge of their relation to each other or to other facts 
he may know, nor does it test his ability to use these 
facts in deducing conclusions or establishing principles. 
Apparently this method of conducting a recitation, or quiz 
as it is often called, is far too common in teaching engin- 
eering subjects. It is the result chiefly of the mistaken 
belief that the purpose of technical teaching is to give in- 
formation. 

The " thought " question is one which requires the student 
to reflect upon the facts stated in the book and to draw 
his own conclusions. This method is intermediate between 
the " fact " question and the topical discussion ; it is not 



Recitation 
system 



514 College Teaching 

so suitable to college students as to younger ones, and is 
not so easily applied in engineering subjects as in more 
general subjects such as history, economics, or social 
science. It will not be considered further. 

The topical recitation consists in calling upon the 
student to state what he knows upon a given topic. This 
method not only tests the student's knowledge of facts, but 
also trains him in arranging his facts in logical order and 
in presenting them in clear, correct, and forceful language. 

(1) One advantage of this method of conducting the recita- 
tion is that it stimulates the student to acquire a proper 
method of attacking the assigned lesson. Many college 
students know little or nothing concerning the art of study- 
ing. Apparently, they simply read the lesson over witih- 
out attempting to weigh the relative importance of the sev- 
eral statements and without attempting to skeletonize or 
summarize the text. The ability to acquire quickly and 
easily the essential statements of a printed page is an ac- 
complishment which will be valuable in any walk of life. 
In other words, this method of conducting a recitation 
forces the student to adopt the better method of study. 

(2) A second advantage of the topical recitation is that 
it trains the student in expressing his ideas. It is generally 
conceded that the engineering-college graduate is deficient 
in his ability to use good English, which is evidence that 
either the topical recitation is not usually employed, or 
good English is not insisted upon, or perhaps both. (3) 
A third advantage of the topical recitation is that it trains 
the student in judgment and discrimination — two elements 
essential in the practical work of all engineers. 

Apparently many college teachers think it more credit- 
able to deliver lectures than to conduct recitations. The 
formal lecture is an inefficient means of either conveying 
information or developing intellectual power, and hence no 
one should take pride in it. The textbook and quiz method 
of conducting a recitation is more effective than the lecture 
system, but is by no means an ideal method of either 
imparting information or giving intellectual training. 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 515 

Neither of these methods is worthy of a conscientious 
teacher. The textbook and topical recitation affords an 
excellent opportunity to teach the student to analyze, to 
observe, to discriminate, to train him in the use of clear 
and correct language, and in the presentation of his 
thoughts in logical order — an object worthy of any teacher 
and an opportunity to employ the highest ability of any per- 
son. In the conduct of such a recitation in engineering 
subjects, there is abundant opportunity to supplement the 
textbook by calling attention to new discoveries and other 
applications, and to introduce interesting historic refer- 
ences. It is often instructive to discuss differences in con- 
struction which depend upon differences in physical con- 
ditions or in preferences of the constructor, and such dis- 
cussions afford excellent opportunities to train the student 
in discovering the causes of the differences and in weighing 
evidence, all of which helps to develop his powers of ob- 
servation and analysis and above all to cultivate his judg- 
ment. If a teacher is truly interested in his work, such a 
recitation gives opportunity for an interchange of thoughts 
between the student and teacher that may be made of great 
value to the former and of real interest to the latter. The 
conduct of such a recitation should be much more inspiring 
to the teacher than the repetition of a formal lecture which 
at best can have only little instructional value. 

The recitation is such an important method of instruc- ^^/^^^ ^°^^ 

tion that it is believed a few suggestions as to its conduct increasing 

1 ..11 11 1 T • r 1.1 1 £ effectiveness 

may be permissible, although a discussion oi methods ot ^f t^e 

teaching does not properly belong in this chapter. (1) recitation 
The students should not be called upon in any regular 
order. (2) If at all possible, each student should be called 
upon during each recitation. (3) The question or topic 
should be stated, and then after a brief pause a particular 
student should be called upon to recite. (4) The ques- 
tion or topic should not be repeated. (5) The student 
should not be helped. (6) The question should be so 
definite as to admit of only one answer. (7) "Fact" 
questions and topical discussions should be interspersed. 



516 



College Teaching 



Assigned 
reading 



Laboratory 
work 



(8) Irrelevant discussion should be eliminated. (9) The 
thoughtful attention of the entire class and an opportunity 
for all to participate may be secured by interrupting a 
topical discussion and asking another to continue it. (10) 
Clear, correct and concise answers should be insisted upon. 
(11) In topical discussions the facts should be stated in a 
logical order. (12) Commend any exceptionally good an- 
swer. 

A student is sometimes required to read an assigned 
chapter in a book or some particular article in a technical 
journal as a supplement to a lecture or a textbook. Some- 
times the whole class has the same assignment, and some- 
times different students have different assignments. Each 
student should be quizzed on his reading, or should be re- 
quired to give a summary of it. The method of instruc- 
tion by assigned reading is most appropriate when the lec- 
ture presentation or textbook is comparatively brief. This 
method is only sparingly permissible with an adequate text- 
book. 

The chief purpose of laboratory work is to illustrate the 
principles of the textbook and thereby fix them in the 
student's mind. The manipulation of the apparatus and 
the making of the observations is valuable training for the 
hand and the eye, and the computation of the results famil- 
iarizes the student with the limitations of mathematical 
processes. The interpretation of the meaning of the re- 
sults cultivates the student's judgment and power of dis- 
crimination, and the writing up of the report should give 
valuable experience in orderly and concise statement. 
Sometimes the student is not required to interpret the mean- 
ing or to discuss the accuracy of his results, and some- 
times he is provided with a tabular form in which he in- 
serts his observed data without consideration of any other 
reason for securing the particular information. He should 
not be provided with a sample report nor with a tabular 
form, but should be required to plan his own method of 
presentation, determine for himself what matter shall be 
in tabular form and what in narrative form, and plan 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 517 



his own illustrations. Of course, he should be required 
to keep neat, accurate, and reasonably full notes of the lab- 
oratory work, and should be held to a high standard of 
clearness, conciseness, and correctness in his final report. 
Providing the student with tabular forms and sample re- 
ports may lessen the teacher's labors and improve the ap- 
pearance of the report, but such practice greatly decreases 
the educational value to the student. 

In its aims surveying field-practice is substantially the Surveying 
same as engineering laboratory work, and all the preceding practice 
remarks concerning laboratory work apply equally 
well also to surveying practice. Ordinarily the latter has 
a higher educational value than the former in that the 
method of attack, at least in minor details, is left to the 
student's initiative, and also in that the difficulties or ob- 
stacles encountered require the student to exercise his own 
resourcefulness. The cultivation of initiative and self-reli- 
ance is of the highest engineering as well as educational 
value. Further, in the better institutions the instructor in 
surveying usually knows the result the student should ob- 
tain, and consequently the latter has a greater stimulus to 
secure accuracy than occurs in most laboratory work. 
Finally, the students, at least the civil engineering ones, 
always feel that surveying is highly practical, and hence are 
unusually enthusiastic in their work. 

When properly taught an exercise in design has the Design 
highest educational value; and, besides, the student is usu- 
ally easily interested, since he is likely to regard such work 
^as highly practical and therefore to give it his best efforts. 
Instruction in design should accomplish two purposes; viz., 
(1) familiarize the student with the application of prin- 
ciples, and (2) train him in initiative. Different subjects 
necessarily have these elements in different degrees, and 
any particular subject may be so taught as specially to 
emphasize one or the other of these objects. 

Sometimes a problem in design is little more than the 
following of an outline or example in the textbook and 
substituting values in formulas. The design of an ordinary 



518 College Teaching 

short-span steel truss bridge, as ordinarily taught, is an 
example of this method of instruction. Another example 
is the design of a residence for which no predetermined 
limiting conditions are laid down and which does not differ 
materially from those found in the surrounding community 
or illustrated in the textbook or the architectural magazine. 
Such work illustrates and enforces theory, gives the student 
some knowledge of the materials and processes of construc- 
tion, and also trains him in drafting; but it does not give 
him much intellectual exercise nor develop his mental fiber, 
although it may prepare him to take a place as a routine 
worker in his profession. Such instruction emphasizes 
utilitarian training but neglects intellectual development, 
mental vigor, and breadth of view. 

The exercise in design which has the highest educational 
value is one in which the student must discover for himself 
the conditions to be fulfilled, the method of treatment to be 
employed, the materials to be used, and the details to be 
adopted. An example of this form of problem is the de- 
sign of a bridge for a particular river crossing, without 
any limitations as to materials of construction, type of struc- 
ture, time of construction, etc., except such as are inherent 
in the problem and which the student must determine for 
himself. A better example is the architectural design of 
a building to be erected in a given locality to serve some 
particular purpose, with no limitations except perhaps 
cost or architectural style. 

Experience of several teachers with a considerable num- 
ber of students during each of several years conclusively 
shows that students who have had only comparatively little 
of the design work mentioned in the preceding paragraph 
greatly exceed other students having the same preparation 
except this form of design work, in mental vigor, breadth of 
view, intellectual power, and initiative. This difterence in 
capacity is certainly observable in subsequent college work, 
and is apparently quite effective after graduation. 
Examina- The term " examination " will be used as including the 

comparatively brief and informal quizzes held at inter- 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 519 

vals during the progress of the work and also the longer and 
more formal examinations held at the end of the work. 
Usually the examination is regarded as a test to determine 
the accuracy and extent of the student's information, which 
form may be called a question-and-answer examination or 
quiz. A more desirable form of examination is one which 
requires the student to survey his information on a par- 
ticular topic, and to summarize the same or to state his 
own conclusions concerning either the relative importance 
of the different items or his interpretation of the meaning 
or application of the facts. Such an examination could 
be called a " topical examination." The remarks in the 
earlier part of this chapter concerning the relative merits 
of the question-and-answer and the topical recitation apply 
also with equal force to these two forms of examinations. 
However, the topical examination can be made of greater 
educational value than the topical recitation, since the stu- 
dent is likely to be required to survey a wider field and 
organize a larger mass of information, and also since the 
examination is usually written and hence affords a better 
opportunity to secure accuracy and finish. 

It is much easier for the instructor to prepare and grade 
the papers for the question-and-answer examination than for 
the topical examination, and perhaps this is one reason 
why the former is nearly universally employed. Of course, 
the topical examination should not be used except in con- 
nection with the topical recitation. Some executives of 
public school systems require that at least a third, and 
others at least a half, of all formal examinations shall be 
topical ; and as the examination papers and the grades there- 
on are subject to the inspection of the executive, this re- 
quirement indirectly insures that the teacher shall not neg- 
lect the topical recitation. Apparently a somewhat similar 
requirement would be beneficial in college work. 

The term " memoir " is here employed to designate either Memoir 
a comparatively brief report upon some topic assigned in 
connection with the daily recitation or the graduating 
thesis. 



520 College Teaching 

The former is substantially a form of laboratory work 
in which the library is the workroom and books the appa- 
ratus. This method of instruction has several merits. It 
makes the student familiar with books and periodicals and 
with the method of extracting information from them. It 
stimulates his interest in a wider knowledge than that ob- 
tained only from the textbook or the instructor's lectures. 
It is valuable as an exercise in English composition, par- 
ticularly if the student is held to an orderly form of presen- 
tation and to good English, and is not permitted simply to 
make extracts. The value to be obtained from such literary 
report depends, of course, upon the time devoted to it, and 
also upon whether the instructor tells the student of the 
articles to be read or requires him to find the sources of 
information for himself. 
Thesis The thesis may be a description of some original design, 

or a critical review of some engineering construction, or an 
account of an experimental investigation. The thesis 
differs from other subjects in the college curriculum in that 
in the latter the student is expected simply to follow the 
directions of the instructor, to study specified lessons and 
recite thereon, to solve the problems assigned, and to read 
the articles recommended; while the preparation of the 
thesis is intended to develop the student's ability to do inde- 
pendent work. There is comparatively little in the ordinary 
college curriculum to stimulate the student's power of in- 
itiative, but in his thesis work he is required to take the lead 
in devising ways and means. The power of self-direction, 
the ability to invent methods of attack, the capacity to fore- 
see the probable results of experiments, and the ability to 
interpret correctly the results of experiments is of vital im- 
portance in the future of any engineering student. Within 
certain limits the thesis is a test of the present attainments 
of the student and also a prophecy of his future success. 
Therefore, the preparation of a thesis is of the very highest 
educational possibility. Unfortunately many students are 
too poorly prepared, or too lacking in ambition, or too de- 
ficient in self-reliance and initiative to make it feasible for 



The teaching of Engineering Subjects 521 

them to undertake the independent work required in a 
thesis. Such students should take instead work under di- 
rection. Further, it is unfortunate that, for administrative 
reasons, the requirement of a thesis for graduation is made 
less frequently now than formerly. The increase in number 
of students has made it practically impossible to require a 
thesis of all graduates, because of the difficulty of pro- 
viding adequate facilities and of supervising the work. 
Again, it is difficult to administer a requirement that only 
part of the seniors shall prepare a thesis. Consequently 
the result is that at present only a very few undergraduate 
engineering students prepare theses. 

All of the preceding discussion applies only to under- ^^^^duate 
graduate work. Only comparatively few engineering 
students take graduate work. A few institutions have 
enough such students to justify, for administrative reasons, 
the organization of classes in graduate work, but usually 
such classes are conducted upon principles quite different 
from those employed for undergraduates. No textbooks in 
the ordinary sense are used. Often the student is assigned 
an experimental or other investigation, and is expected 
to work almost independently of the teacher, the chief 
function of the latter being to criticize the methods pro- 
posed and to review the results obtained. Such work under 
the guidance of a competent teacher is a most valuable 
means for mental development, training, and inspiration. 

Ira 0. Baker 

University of Illinois 



522 College Teaching 



Bibliography 

Below is a list of the principal articles relating to engineering edu- 
cation, arranged approximately in chronological order. 

1. The annual Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of 
Engineering Education, from 1913 to date, contain many valuable 
articles on various phases of engineering education. Each volume 
consists of 200 to 300 8vo pages. The society has no permanent ad- 
dress. All business is conducted by the secretary, whose address at 
present is University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 

The more important papers of the above Proceedings which are 
closely related to the subject of this chapter are included in the list 
below. Many of the articles relate to the teaching of a particular 
branch of engineering, and hence are not mentioned in the following 
list. 

2. "Methods of Teaching Engineering: By Textbook, by Lectur- 
ing, by Design, by Laboratory, by Memoir." Professor C. F. Allen, 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. An excellent presentation, 
and discussion by others. Proceedings of the Society for the Promo- 
tion of Engineering Education, Vol. VII, pages 29-54. 

3. " Two Kinds of Education for Engineers." Dean J. B. Johnson, 
University of Wisconsin. An address to the students of the College of 
Engineering of the University of Wisconsin, 1901. Pamphlet pub- 
lished by the author; 15 8vo pages. Reprinted in Addresses of Engi- 
neering Students, edited by Waddell and Harrington, pages 25-35. 

4. " Potency of Engineering Schools and Their Imperfections." 
Professor D. C. Jackson, University of Wisconsin. An address pre- 
sented at the Quarto-Centennial Celebration of the University of Col- 
orado, 1902. Proceedings of that celebration, pages 53-65. 

5. " Technical and Pedagogic Value of Examinations." Professor 
Henry H. Norris, Cornell University. A discussion of the general sub- 
ject, containing examples of questions in a topical examination in an 
electrical engineering subject. Discussed at length by several others. 
Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Educa- 
tion. Vol. XV, pages 605-618. 

6. " Limitations of Efficiency in Engineering Education." Professor 
George F. Swain, Harvard University. An address at the opening of 
the General Engineering Building of Union University, 1910. A dis- 
cussion of various limitations and defects in engineering education. 
Pamphlet published by Union University; 28 small 8vo pages. Re- 
printed in Addresses of Engineering Students, edited by Waddell and 
Harrington, pages 231-252. 

7. "The Good Engineering Teacher: His Personality and Training." 
Professor William T. Magruder, Ohio State University. An inspiring 



The Teaching of Engineering Subjects 523 

and instructive presidential address. Proceedings of the Society jot 
the Promotion of Engineering Education. Vol. XXI, pages 27-38. 

8. " Hydraulic Engineering Education." D. W. Mead, University 
of Wisconsin. An interesting discussion of the elements an engineer 
should acquire in his education. The article is instructive, and is 
broader than its title; but it contains nothing directly on methods 
of teaching engineering subjects. Bulletin of the Society for the Pro- 
motion of Engineering Education, Vol. IV, No. 5, 1914, pages 185-198. 

9. " Some Considerations Regarding Engineering Education in 
America." Professor G. F. Swain, Harvard University. A paper pre- 
sented at the International Engineering Congress in 1915 in San 
Francisco, California. A brief presentation of the early history of 
engineering education in America, and an inquiry as to the effective- 
ness of present methods. Transactions of International Engineering 
Congress, Miscellany, San Francisco, 1915, pages 324-330; discussion, 
pages 340-348. 

10. " Technical Education for the Professions of Applied Science." 
President Ira N. Hollis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. A discus- 
sion of the methods and scope of engineering education, and of the 
contents of a few representative engineering curricula. Transactions 
International Engineering Congress, San Francisco, 1915, Miscellany, 
pages 306-325. 

11. " What is Best in Engineering Education." Professor H. H. 
Higbie, president Tau Beta Pi Association. An elaborate inquiry 
among graduate members of that association as to the value and 
relative importance of the different subjects pursued in college, of the 
time given to each, and of the methods employed in presenting them. 
Pamphlet published by the Association, 107 8vo pages. 

12. " Some Details in Engineering Education." Professor Henry S. 
Jacoby, Cornell University. A president's address, containing many 
interesting and instructive suggestions concerning various details of 
teaching engineering subjects and the relations between students and 
instructor. Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineer- 
ing Education, Vol, XXIII, 15 pages. 

13. " Report of Progress in the Study of Engineering Education." 
Professor C. R. Mann. Several of the National Engineering Societies 
requested the Carnegie Foundation to conduct a thorough investiga- 
tion of engineering education, and the Foundation committed the in- 
vestigation to Professor C. R. Mann. First Report of Progress, Pro- 
ceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, 
Vol. XXIII, pages 70-85; Second Report, Bulletin, same, November, 
1916, pages 125-144; Final Report: A Study of Engineering Educa- 
tion by Charles Riborg Mann, Bulletin Number 11, Carnegie Foun- 
dation for Advancement of Teaching, 1918. 

14. " Relation of Mathematical Training to the Engineering Profes- 
sion." H. D. Gaylord, Secretary of the Association of Teachers of 



524 College Teaching 

Mathematics in New England, and Professor Paul H. Hanus, Harvard 
University. An elaborate inquiry as to the opinion of practicing en- 
gineers concerning the importance of mathematics in the work of the 
engineer. Bulletin of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering 
Education, October, 1916, pages 54-72. 

15. " Does Present-Day Engineering College Education Produce Ac- 
curacy and Thoroughness? " Professor D. W. Mead, University of 
Wisconsin, and Professor G. F. Swain, Harvard University. An ani- 
mated discussion as to the effectiveness of a collegiate engineering 
education. Engineering Record, Vol. 73 (May 6, 1916), pages 607- 
609. 

16. "■ Teach Engineering Students Fundamental Principles." Pro- 
fessor D. S. Jacobus, Stevens Institute. Address of the retiring presi- 
dent of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. A clear and 
forceful discussion of general methods of studying and teaching, and 
of the choice of subjects to be taught. Engineering Record, Decem- 
ber 16, 1916, pages 739-740. 

17. A considerable number of thoughtful articles on the general 
subject of technical education appeared in the columns of Mining 
and Scientific Press (San Francisco, California) during the year 
1916. In the main these articles discuss general engineering educa- 
tion, and give a little attention to mining engineering education. 

18. Since the preceding was written there has appeared a little 
book, the reading of which would be of great value to all engineering 
students, entitled How to Study, by George Fillmore Swain, LL.D., 
Professor of Civil Engineering in Harvard University and in the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 
New York City, 1917. 5 x IV2 inches, paper, 63 pages, 25 cents. 



XXVI 



THE TEACHING OF MECHANICAL DRAWING 

DRAWING is a mode of expression and is therefore a 
form of language. As applied in the engineering field 
drawing is mechanical in character and is used principally 
for the purpose of conveying information relative to the 
construction of machines and structures. It seems logical 
that the methods employed and the standards adopted in the 
teaching of engineering drawing should be based on an 
analysis of conditions found in the engineering world. In 
the best engineering practice the technical standards of 
drawing are high, so high in fact that they may be used as 
an ideal toward which to work in the classroom. Exam- 
ples of good draftsmanship selected from practice may well 
serve to furnish standards for classroom work, both in tech- 
nique and methods of representation. 

Engineering drawing demands intellectual power quite 
as much as it does skill of hand. The draftsman in con- 
ceiving and planning his design visualizes his problem, 
makes calculations for it, and graphically represents the re- 
sults upon the drafting board. The development of the 
details of his design makes it necessary that he be a trained 
observer of forms. Since new designs frequently involve 
modifications of old forms, in his efforts to recall old forms 
and create new ones, he develops visual memory. If the 
requirements of a successful draftsman or designer be taken 
as typical, it is evident that the young engineer must de- 
velop, in addition to a technical knowledge of the subject, 
and a certain degree of skill of hand, a habit of quick and 
accurate observation and the ability to perceive and retain 
mental images of forms. 

Modern methods of instruction recognize both the motor 
and mental factors involved in the production of engineer- 
ing drawings. It is the aim of the drawing courses in 
engineering colleges to familiarize the student with the 

525 



Mechanical 
drawing a 
mode of 
expression 



Mechanical 
drawing 
disciplinary 
as well as 
practical 
in value 



526 



College Teaching 



Organiza- 
tion and 
content of 
courses in 
mechanical 
drawing 



standards of technique and methods of representation found 
in the best commercial practice; likewise to develop in him 
the powers to visualize and reason, which are possessed by 
the commercial draftsman and designers. 

The drawing courses of engineering curricula may be 
divided into two groups: (1) General courses, in which the 
principles and methods of representation are taught, to- 
gether with such practice in drawing as will develop a satis- 
factory technique. (2) Technical courses, the aim of which 
is to assist the student to acquire technical knowledge or 
training, drawing being used primarily for the purpose of 
developing or testing a student's knowledge of the subject 
matter. 

The general courses usually include an elementary course 
and a course in descriptive geometry. These courses deal 
with the fundamental principles and methods which have 
universal application in the advanced and technical courses. 
While the courses of the two groups may overlap, the gen- 
eral courses precede the courses of the technical group. 
There is no general agreement as to the order in which the 
subjects belonging to the general group should be given. 
Each of the following orders is in use: 

1. A course in descriptive geometry followed by an ele- 
mentary technical course. 

2. An elementary course and a course in descriptive 
geometry given simultaneously. 

3. An elementary course followed by a course in descrip- 
tive geometry. 

The first plan is followed by a number of institutions 
which conclude, because of the general practice of offering 
courses in drawing in the secondary schools, that pupils 
entering college have a knowledge of the fundamentals 
ordinarily included in an elementary course. In other in- 
stitutions it is held that the principles of projection can be 
taught to students of college age in a course of descriptive 
geometry without preliminary drill. 

Where the second plan is used, the courses are so corre- 
lated that the instruction in the 'use of instruments given in 



The Teaching of Mechanical Drawing 527 

an elementary course is applied in solving problems in 
descriptive geometry, while the principles of projection 
taught in descriptive geometry are applied in the making 
of working drawings. This plan is followed by several 
of the larger engineering colleges. 

Under the third plan the principles of projection are 
taught through their applications in the form of working 
drawings. In this way the principles may be taught in 
more elementary form than is possible in any adequate 
treatment of descriptive geometry. The illustration of the 
principles in a concrete way makes it possible for those 
who find visualizing difficult, to develop that power before 
abstract principles of projection are taken up in the descrip- 
tive geometry. The skill of hand developed in the ele- 
mentary course makes it possible to give entire attention 
to a study of the principles in the course in descriptive 
geometry. While excellent results are being obtained under 
each of the three plans, this plan is the one most generally 
adopted. 

The order of courses in the technical drawing groups is 

determined by other considerations than those relating to 

drawing, such as prerequisites in mathematics, strength of 

materials, etc. 

The elementary courses have undergone a number of Theeie- 
I , . T 1 /• 1 mentary 

important changes durmg recent years. In those oi the courses 

present day more attention than formerly is given to the 
making of complete working drawings. In the earlier 
courses the elements were taught in the form of exercises. 
In the latter part of the courses the elements were combined 
in working drawings. In the modern courses, however, 
there is a very marked tendency to eliminate the exercise 
and make the applications of elements in the form of work- 
ing drawings throughout the course. 

In the early type of course the theory of projection 
was taught by using the synthetic method; i. e., by placing 
the emphasis first upon the projection of points, then lines, 
surfaces, and finally geometrical solids. In the modern 
type of course, however, this order is reversed and the 



528 



College Teaching 



Fundamen- 
tals of the 
elementary 
course 



analytic method is used; i. e., solids in the form of simple 
machine or structural parts are first represented, then the 
principles of projection involved in the representation of 
their surfaces, edges, and finally their corners are studied. 
In this type of course the student works from the concrete 
to the abstract rather than from the abstract to the con- 
crete. 

Geometrical constructions, which were formerly given 
as exercises and which served as a means of giving excellent 
practice in the use of instruments, are now incorporated in 
working drawings and emphasized in making views of ob- 
jects. It is believed that in the applied form these con- 
structions offer the same opportunity for the training in 
accuracy in the use of instruments that was had in the ab- 
stract exercises, to which is added interest naturally 
secured by making applications of elements in working 
drawings. 

Conventions are also taught in an applied form and are 
introduced as the skill for executing them and the theory 
involved in their construction are developed in the progress 
of the course. 

The type of freehand lettering most generally taught is 
that used in practice; i.e., the single-stroke Gothic. The 
best commercial drafting-room practice suggests the use of 
the vertical capitals for titles and subtitles, and the in- 
clined, lower case letters and numerals for notes and di- 
mensions. 

The plan generally found to produce satisfactory results 
is to divide the letters and numerals of the alphabet into 
groups containing four or five letters and numerals on the 
basis of form and to concentrate the attention of the student 
on these, one group at a time. The simple forms are con- 
sidered first, and enough practice is given to enable the 
student to proportion the letters and numerals and make the 
strokes in the proper order. 

It is more natural to make inclined letters than vertical 
ones, and they are therefore easier to execute. If both 
vertical and inclined letters are taught, the instruction on 



The Teaching of Mechanical Drawifig 529 



the vertical should be given first, as it is more difficult to 
make vertical strokes after becoming accustomed to the 
inclined strokes. 

Freehand perspective sketching affords the most natural 
method of representing objects in outline. It is of par- 
ticular value in interpreting orthographic drawing. The 
student who first draws a perspective sketch of an object 
becomes so familiar with every detail of it that he cannot 
fail to have a clearer mental image of its form when he 
attempts to draw its orthographic views. It gives a valu- 
able training in coordinating the hand and eye in drawing 
freehand lines and estimating proportions. It also serves 
as an intermediate step between observing an object and 
drawing it orthographically. 

Freehand orthographic sketching is now quite commonly 
incorporated in modern courses in mechanical drawing. 
Such sketches serve as a preliminary step in the preparation 
of the mechanical drawing. They correspond to the sketches 
made by the engineer or draftsman for drafting-room or 
shop use. The experience of many instructors seems to 
indicate that the early introduction of freehand perspec- 
tive and orthographic sketching in a course of mechanical 
drawing serves as a means of developing that skill in free- 
hand execution which is so necessary in rendering the free- 
hand features of a mechanical drawing. When this type 
of skill is acquired before the mechanical work is started, 
the mechanical and freehand technique may be simultan- 
eously developed. 

The organization of an elementary course composed 
largely of a progressive series of working drawings neces- 
sitates the giving of considerable attention to the selection 
of problems involving the use of the above-named funda- 
mentals to make the course increasingly difficult for the 
student. The drawing of views involves geometrical con- 
structions and conventions, while the dimensions, notes, 
and title involve the making of arrowheads, letters, and 
numerals. In such an elementary course the student re- 
ceives not only the training in the fundamentals, but also 



530 College Teaching 

in their application in working drawings which furnish com- 
plete and accurate information in the desired form. 
Descriptive ^^^ modern methods of teaching descriptive geometry 

apply the theory of the subject to applications in problems 
taken from engineering practice. The introduction of prac- 
tical applications adds interest to the subject and makes the 
theory more easily understood. The number of applica- 
tions should be as great as possible without interfering with 
the development of the theory. Such a treatment of descrip- 
tive geometry, following a thorough course in elementary 
drawing, should make it possible to deal with abstract prin- 
ciples of projection with a few well-chosen applications. 

Descriptive geometry aids materially in developing the 
power of visualization which is so essential to the training 
of the engineer. The graphical applications of the sub- 
ject in the solution of engineering problems may be used 
as a means of testing the student's ability to visualize. 

There is now very little discussion relative to the advan- 
tages and disadvantages of the first and third angle pro- 
jection. Since the third angle is generally used in the ele- 
mentary course as well as in engineering practice, it seems 
logical that it should be emphasized in descriptive geom- 
etry. Recent textbooks on this subject confirm the ten- 
dency toward the use of the third angle. 

The use of the third angle presents new difficulties, such 
as that of locating the positions of magnitudes in space in 
relation to their projections. Magnitudes must be located 
behind or below the drawing surface. To obviate such diffi- 
culties, some instructors demonstrate principles by first angle 
constructions. Others invert surfaces which in the first an- 
gle have their bases in the horizontal plane. This unde- 
sirable device may be overcome by using a second hori- 
zontal plane in the third angle. Such means of demonstra- 
tion may be avoided altogether by considering the space 
relations of magnitude to one another instead of relating 
them to the planes of projection. This method centers the 
attention of the student on the relation of magnitudes rep- 
resented and develops visualization. It has been found to 



The Teaching of Mechanical Drawing 531 



give excellent results in both elementary drawing and 
descriptive geometry. 

To bring the teaching of descriptive geometry into closer 
harmony with its application in practice, auxiliary views are 
frequently used instead of the method of rotations. 

Briefly, then, it appears that the modern course in descrip- 
tive geometry should contain enough applications to hold the 
interest of the student and to test his power of visualization; 
that the third angle should be emphasized, and some use 
should be made of auxiliary views. Above all, the develop- 
ment of visualizing ability should be considered one of the 
chief aims of the course. 

In teaching drawing and descriptive geometry, lectures, 
demonstrations, and individual instruction each have a place. 
Principles can best be presented in the form of lectures. 
The manual part of the work can be presented most effec- 
tively by means of demonstrations. The instructor should 
illustrate the proper use of instruments and materials by 
actually going through the process himself, calling atten- 
tion to important points and explaining each step as he 
proceeds. Individual instruction given at the student's 
desk is a vital factor in teaching drawing, as it offers the best 
means of clearing up erroneous impressions and minister- 
ing to the needs of the individual student. 

Frequent recitations and quizzes serve the purpose of 
keeping the instructor informed as to the effectiveness 
of his instruction and as a means by which the student 
can measure his own progress and grasp upon the 
subject. 

Those drawing courses which have for their primary ob- 
ject the teaching of technical subject matter make use of the 
drawings as an instrument to record facts and to test the 
student's knowledge of principles and methods. 

In the technical courses it should be possible to assume 
a knowledge of the material given in the general courses. 
Some effort is usually necessary, however, to maintain the 
standards already established. The effort thus expended 
should result in improving technique and increased speed. 



Methods 
of instruc- 
tion in 
general 
courses 



Methods 
of instruc- 
tion in 
technical 
drawing 
courses . 



532 



College Teaching 



The 

four-year 
drawing 
course 



Conclusion 



In an institution where drawing courses are given through- 
out the four years, much can be done by organization and 
cooperation to make the time spent by the student produc- 
tive of the best results. More time than can usually be se- 
cured for the general courses is necessary to develop skill 
that will be comparable with that found in practice. The 
conditions in technical drawing courses approximate those 
in practice. They apply methods taught in the general 
courses. The limited time, frequently less than 300 clock 
hours, devoted to the general courses makes it desirable 
that advantage be taken in the technical courses for fur- 
ther development of technique and skill. In a number of 
institutions allwork in drawing is so organized as to form a 
single drawing unit. This plan calls for cooperation on 
the part of all drawing teachers in the institution. The 
results obtained by this method seem amply to justify the 
effort put forth. 

The final test in any course or group of drawing courses 
may be measured by the student's ability to solve problems 
m-et with in engineering practice. Measured upon this 
basis, the newer types of courses discussed herein, those 
founded upon the analytic method and developed largely 
as a progressive series of working drawings, seem to be meet- 
ing with better results than did those of the older type 
in which the synthetic method predominated and in which 
abstract problems were principally used. 

While the college man is not fitting himself to become a 
draftsman, it is quite true that many start their engineer- 
ing careers in the drafting office. Those who think well and 
are proficient in expressing their thoughts through the 
medium of drawing are most apt to attract attention which 
places them in line for higher positions. 

Those who do not enter the engineering field through the 
drafting office will find the cultural and disciplinary train- 
ing and the habits of precision and neatness instilled by a 
good course in drawing of great value. 

J. D. Phillips and H. D. Orth 



University of Wisconsin 



XXVII 
THE TEACHING OF JOURNALISM 

THE education of the journalist or newspaper man has 
been brought into being by the evolution of the news- 
paper during the last half century. Addison's Spectator 
two centuries ago counted almost wholly on the original 
and individual expression of opinion. It had nothing be- 
yond a few advertisements. The news sheet of the day 
was as wholly personal, a billboard of news and adver- 
tisements with contributed opinion in signed articles. A 
century ago, nearly half the space in a daily went to such 
communications. In the four-page and the eight-page news- 
paper of sixty to eighty years ago, taking all forms of 
opinions, — leaders contributed, political correspondence 
from capitals, state and federal, and criticism, — about one 
fourth of the space went to utterance editorial in character. 
The news filled as much more, running to a larger or 
smaller share as advertisements varied. The news was little 
edited. The telegraph down to 1880 was taken, not as it 
came, but more nearly so than today. In an eight-page New 
York paper between 1865 and 1875, a news editor with one 
assistant and a city editor with one assistant easily handled 
city, telegraph, and other copy. None of it had the inten- 
sive treatment of today. It was not until 1875 that telegraph 
and news began to be sharply edited, the New York Sun 
and the Springfield Republican leading. Between 1875 and 
1895, the daily paper doubled in size, and the Sunday paper 
quadrupled and quintupled. The relative share taken by 
editorial and critical matter remained about the same in 
amount, grew more varied in character, but dropped from 
25 per cent of the total space in a four-page newspaper to 
3 to 5 per cent in the dailies with sixteen to twenty pages, 
and the news required from three to five times as many per- 
sons to handle it. The circulation of individual papers 
in our large cities doubled and quadrupled, and the weekly 

533 



534 College Teaching 

expenditure of a New York paper rose from $10,000 a week 
to thrice that. These rough, general statements, varying 
with different newspapers as well as issue by issue in the 
same newspaper, represent a still greater change in the char- 
acter of the subjects covered. 

When the newspaper was issued in communities, of a 
simple organization, in production, transportation, and dis- 
tribution, the newspaper had some advertising, some news, 
and personal expression of opinion — political-partisan for 
the most part, critical in small part. This opinion was 
chiefly, though even then not wholly, expressed by a single 
personality, sometimes dominant, able, unselfish, and in 
nature a social prophet, but in most instances weak, time- 
serving, and self-seeking, and partisan, with one eye on 
advertising, official preferred, and the other on profits, 
public office, and other contingent personal results. 

In the complex society today, classified, stratified, organ- 
ized, and diff"erentiated, the newspaper is a complex repre- 
sentation of this life. The railroad is a far more important 
social agency than the stagecoach. It carries more people; 
it off'ers the community more; but the individual passenger 
counted for more in the eye of the traveling public in the 
stagecoach than today in the railroad train; but nobody 
would pretend to say that the railroad president was less 
important than the head of a stage line, Mr. A. J. Cassatt, 
President of the Pennsylvania Railroad and builder of its 
terminal, than John E. Reeside, the head of the express 
stage line from New York to Philadelphia, who beat all 
previous records in speed and stages. 

The newspaper-complex, representing all society, still 
expressing the opinion of society, not merely on politics but 
on all the range of life, creating, developing, and modifying 
this opinion, publishes news which has been standardized by 
cooperative news-gathering associations, local, national, and 
international. In the daily of today " politics " is but a 
part and a decreasing part, and a world of new topics has 
come into pages which require technical skill, the well- 
equipped mind, a wide information, and knowledge of the 



Tlie Teaching of Journalism 535 

condition of the newspaper. The early reporter who once 
gathered the city news and turned it in to be put into type 
and made up by the foreman, — often also, owner and pub- 
lisher, — in a sheet as big as a pocket-handkerchief, is 
as far removed from the men who share in the big modern 
daily, as far as is the modern railroad man from the rough, 
tough individual proprietor and driver of the stagecoach, 
though the driver of the latter was often a most original 
character, and a well-known figure on the highway as rail- 
road men are not. 

As this change in the American newspaper came between Evolution 
1860 and 1880, the public demand came for the vocational f°esSo/of' 
training of the journalist and experiments in obtaining it journalism 
began. When Charles A. Dana bought the New York Sun 
in 1868, he made up his staff, managing editor, news editor, 
city editor, Albany correspondent and political man, from 
among the printers he had known on the New York Tribune. 
In ten years these were succeeded by college graduates, 
and the Sun became a paper whose writing staff, as- a whole, 
had college training, nearly all men from the colleges. 

College men were in American journalism from its early 
beginnings; but, speaking in a broad sense, the American 
newspaper drew most of its staff in the eighteenth century 
and in the first half of the nineteenth century from among 
men who had the rough but effective training of the com- 
posing room, with the common school as a beginning. 
When the high school developed from 1860 on, it began to 
furnish a large number of journalists, particularly in Phila- 
delphia, where the Central High School manned many 
papers. By 1880, college men began to appear in a steadily 
growing proportion, so far as the general writing staff was 
concerned. If one counted the men at the top, they were in 
a small proportion. In journalism, as in all arts of expres- 
sion, a special and supreme gift will probably always make 
up for lack of special training. 

Between 1890 and 1900, the American newspaper as it is 
today was fairly launched, and Joseph Pulitzer, the ablest 
man in dealing with the journalism of and for the many, 



536 



College Teaching 



Journalism 
today re- 
quires gen- 
eral and 
technical 
training 



was the first conspicuous figure in the newspaper world to see 
that the time had come for the professional training of the 
journalist, the term he preferred to " newspaper men." 
Neither the calling nor the public were ready when he made 
his first proposal, and with singular nobility of soul and sad 
disappointment of heart he determined to pledge his great 
gift of $2,000,000, paying $1,000,000 of it to Columbia 
University before his death and providing that the School 
of Journalism, to which he furnished building and endow- 
ment, should be operated within a year after his death. 
This came October 29, 1911, and the school opened the fol- 
lowing year. 

The discussion of the education of the journalist has been 
in progress for twoscore years. In 1870 Whitelaw Reid 
published his address on the " School of Journalism " and 
urged systematic training, for which in the bitter personal 
newspaper of the day he was ridiculed as " the young pro- 
fessor of journalism." In 1885, Mr. Charles E. Fitch, but 
just gone after long newspaper service, delivered a course of 
lectures on the training of the journalist, at Cornell Uni- 
versity. Two years later Mr. Brainerd Smith, before and 
after of the New York Sun, then professor of elocution in 
the same university, began training in the work of the news- 
paper in his class in composition, sending out his class on 
assignments and outlining possible occurrences which the 
class wrote out. This experiment was abruptly closed by 
Mr. Henry W. Sage, Chairman of the Cornell Board of 
Trustees, because the newspapers of Minneapolis inclined 
to treat the university as important, chiefly because it taught 
" journalism." Mr. Fred Newton Scott, professor of rhet- 
oric in the University of Michigan in 1893, began, with less 
newspaper notice, training in newspaper English, continuing 
to the present time his happy success in teaching style to his 
students. 

In 1908, Mr. Walter Williams, for twenty-four years 
editor, first of the Boonville Advertiser, and then of the 
Columbia, Missouri, Herald, became dean of the first school 
of journalism opened in the same year by the University of 



The Teaching of Journalism 537 

Missouri. This example was followed under the direction 
of Willard G. Bleyer in the University of Wisconsin. By 
1911, nearly a score of colleges, universities, and technical 
schools were giving courses in journalism. 

By 1916, the directory of teachers of journalism compiled 
by Mr. Carl F. Getz, of the University of Ohio, showed 107 
universities and colleges which gave courses in journalism, 
28 state universities, 17 state colleges and schools of journal- 
ism, and 62 colleges, endowed, denominational, or muni- 
cipal. 

The teachers who offered courses in journalism numbered 
127. Of these, 25 were in trade, industrial, and agricul- 
tural schools, their courses dealing with aspects of writing 
demanded in the fields to which the institution devoted 
its work. The number of students in all these institutions 
numbered about 5000. This gave about 1200 students a 
year, who had completed their studies and gone out with 
a degree recording college or technical work in which train- 
ing in journalism played its part. With about 40,000 men 
and' women who were " journalists " in the country at this 
time, there are probably — the estimate is little better than 
a guess — about 3000 posts becoming vacant each year, in 
all branches of periodical work, monthly, weekly, and 
daily. 

The various training in journalism now offered stands 
ready to furnish a little less than half this demand. I judge 
it actually supplies yearly somewhat less than a fourth 
of the new men and women entering the calling, say about 
750 in all. As in all professional schools, a number never 
enter the practice of the calling for which they are pre- 
sumably prepared and still larger numbers leave it after a 
short trial. In addition, training for the work of the 
journalist opens the door to much publicity work, to some 
teaching, and to a wide range of business posts where writ- 
ing is needed. No account also has been made here of the 
wide range of miscellaneous courses in advertising provided 
by universities, colleges and schools of journalism by ad- 
vertising clubs, by private schools, and by teachers, local. 



538 



College Teaching 



Develop- 
ment of 
courses and 
schools of 
journalism 



lecturing and peripatetic. It will take at least ten years 
more before those who have systematic teaching in journal- 
ism will be numerous enough to color the life of the office 
of the magazine or newspaper, and a generation before they 
are in the majority. 

But numbers are not the only gauge of the influence of 
professional study on the calling itself. The mere presence, 
the work, the activities, and the influence of professional 
schools raise the standards of a calling. Those in its work 
begin to see their daily task from the standpoint which 
training implies. Since the overwhelming majority of news- 
paper men believe in their calling, love it, rejoice in it, 
regret its defects, and honor its achievements, they begin 
consciously to try to show how good a newspaper can be 
made with nothing but the tuition of the office. Inaccuracy, 
carelessness, bad taste, and dubious ethics present them- 
selves at a diff'erent angle when judged in the light of a call- 
ing for which colleges and universities furnish training. 
A corporate spirit and a corporate standard are felt more 
strongly, and men who have learned all they know in a 
newspaper office have a just, noble, and often successful de- 
termination to advance these standards and endeavor to 
equal in advance anything the school can accomplish. This 
affects both those who have had college training and those 
who come to their work as newspaper men with only the 
education of the public schools, high or elementary. More 
than 1000 letters have been received by the School of 
Journalism in Columbia University, since it was opened, 
asking advice as to the reading and study which could aid a 
man or woman unable to leave the newspaper office to study 
to improve their work. College graduates, in particular 
on newspapers, begin systematic study on their own account, 
aware of an approaching competition. Definite standards 
in newspaper writing and in diction begin to be recognized 
and practiced in the office, and slips in either meet a more 
severe criticism. 

Newspaper associations of all orders play their part in 
this spontaneous training. Advertising clubs and their 



The Teaching of Journalism 539 



great annual gatherings have censored the periodic pub- 
licity of the advertising column as no other agency whatever 
could possibly have done. How far this educating influ- 
ence has transformed this share of the American periodical 
in all its fields only those can realize who have studied past 
advertisements. Every state has its editorial association. 
These draw together more men from the weeklies and the 
dailies in cities under 50,000 of population than from cities 
of more than 500,000. These associations thirty years ago 
were little more than social. They have come to be edu- 
cational agencies of the first importance. They create 
and assert new norms of conduct and composition. The 
papers read are normally didactic. All men try to be 
what they assert they are. From the American Newspaper 
Publishers' Association, bringing together nearly 1000 of 
our leading newspapers to meetings of the weeklies of a 
county, a region in a state, a whole state, sections like New 
England or the Southern States of particular classes of peri- 
odicals, these various organizations are rapidly instituting a 
machinery, and breathing a spirit whose work is a valid 
factor in the education of the newspaper man. Not the 
least influence which the schools of journalism exert on the 



active work of the calling is through these associations, 



particularly in the states west of the Mississippi where, at the 
present stage of journalism in this region, state universities 
can through schools of journalism bring newspapers to- 
gether at a " newspaper week." 

The rapid growth in students registered in " journalism " 
courses did not gauge the demand for professional teaching 
in the craft of the newspaper or the magazine. A large 
share of the " journalism " taught consisted simply in teach- 
ing newspaper English. The college course has been no- 
where so vehemently and vigorously attacked as in the train- 
ing it gave in writing English. Few were satisfied with it, 
least of all those who taught it. At least one college pro- 
fessor, whose method and textbooks were launched thirty 
years ago, has recanted all his early work in teaching com- 
position and pronounced it valueless or worse. The col- 



Journalism 
raised to 
dignity of a 
profession 
Tjy schools 
of journal- 
ism 



540 



College Teaching 



Journalistic 
writing 
demands a 
distinctive 
style and 
calls for 
immediate 
response 



lege graduate, after courses in English composition (at least 
one in the freshman year and often two or three more), in 
many instances found himself unable to write a business 
letter, describe a plan projected in business affairs, com- 
pose advertisements, or narrate a current event. This was 
not invariably the case, but it occurred often enough to be 
noted. Books, pamphlets, and papers multiplied on this 
lack of training for practical writing in college composi- 
tion courses. The world of education discovered, what the 
newspapers had found by experience, that the style of ex- 
pression successful in literature did not bring results in 
man's daily task of reaching his fellow man on the homely 
and direct issues of daily life. In literature, genius is 
seeking to express itself. In the newspaper and in busi- 
ness, the writer is trying — and only trying — to express 
and interpret his subject so as to reach the other and con- 
temporary man. If he does this, he wins. If not, he fails. 
Genius can, should be, careless of the immediate audience, 
and wait for the final and ultimate response. No news- 
paper article and no advertisement can. For them, style is 
only a means. In letters, form is final. The verdict of 
posterity and not of the yearly subscriber or daily purchaser 
is decisive. 

In the high school and college, from 1910 on, there came 
courses in English which turned to the newspaper for 
methods and means of expression, and were called 
" courses in journalism." They were really courses in the 
English of the newspaper, besprinkled with lectures on the 
diction of the newspaper and the use of words — futile 
eff'orts, through lists of words that must not be used, to 
give a sound rule of the selection of language by the 
writer, and, above all, attempts to secure simple, direct, 
incisive narrative and discussion. These are all useful in 
their place and work. They prepare a man for some of 
the first steps of the newspaper office, particularly in the 
swift, mechanical routine and technique of " copy," indis- 
pensable where what is copy now is on the street for sale 
v/ithin an hour. 



The Teaching of Journalism 541 

Where an instructor has himself the gift of style and the 
capacity to impart it, where he is himself a man who sells 
his stuff and knows what stuff wiH sell, where he has taste 
and inspiring, effective teaching power, a course in news- 
paper English may carry a man far in acquiring command 
of his powers of expression to their profitable use. These 
"courses in journalism" sometimes run for only a single 
semester. Many run for the normal span of three hours 
a week through a year. Sometimes there are two in suc- 
cession, the second assuming the task of teaching work 
which a newspaper beginner usually reaches in from three 
to five years: the special article, the supplement, study of 
a subject, the " feature " story, criticism, and the editorial. 
When these courses are based on assignments which lead a 
man to go out and get the facts on which he writes, they 
furnish a certain share of training in the art of reporting. 
Where this is done in a college town and a college com- 
munity, however, the work is a far remove from that where 
the reporter must dive and wrestle in the seething tide of a 
great city, to return with news wrested from its native bed. 

Newspaper English has its great and widest value to the Courses in 
man who wishes to learn how he can affect the other man. paper 
A course in it is certain, if the instruction is effective, ^^siisii 
to leave a student better able to express himself in the nor- 
mal needs of life. This work is taken by many students 
as part of the effective training of college life, with no 
expectation of entering active newspaper work. The de- 
mand for publicity work in all business fields, and its 
value to the social worker, the teacher, and the clergy- 
man, lead others to this specialized training. In at least 
one of our state universities, half those who take the 
courses in journalism do not look to the newspaper in the 
future. The curriculum is often so arranged that in a 
four-year college course it will be practicable to combine 
these courses in newspaper English with the parts of work 
offered, required for, or preparatory to the three learned 
professions, social service, business, and the applied 
sciences. Such an arrangement of studies frankly recog- 



542 



College Teaching 



Functions 
of a school 
of journal- 
ism : To 
select as 
well as to 
train 



nizes the value in general education and after life of 
training in the direct expression the newspaper uses. In 
no long time every college will have at least one such 
course in its English department. 

But this course in direct writing stands alone, without 
any systematic training in journalism; it should not be 
called a course in journalism any more than a course in 
political science dealing with law, or a course in physiol- 
ogy or hygiene, can be called courses in law or medicine, 
because they cover material used in schools of law or 
schools of medicine. It is an advantage for any educated 
man to learn to write clearly, simply, to the point; to put 
the purpose, object, and force of an article at the beginning, 
and to be as much like Daniel Defoe and Franklin, and as 
little like Walter Pater or Samuel Johnson, as possible; it is 
well for him to have a general view of the newspaper and 
its needs; it is a mistake to leave him with the impression 
that he has the training journalism demands. He is no 
better off at this point than any college graduate who has 
picked up for himself, by nature or through practice and 
imitation, the direct newspaper method. 

President Eliot, when the organization of a school of 
journalism came before him, cast his august and mislead- 
ing influence for the view that a college education was 
enough training for newspaper work. Many still believe 
this. In more than one city-room today college men are 
challenging the right of the graduates of a school of 
journalism to look on themselves as better fitted for the 
newspaper office than those who are graduates of a good 
college. If the training of the school has done no more 
than graft some copy-writing and some copy-editing .on the 
usual curriculum, they are right. If the coming journal- 
ist has got his training in classes, half of whose number 
had no professional interest in the course offered, the claim 
for the college course may be found to be well based. 
Men teach each other in the classroom. A common pro- 
fessional purpose creates common professional ideals and 
common professional aims as no training can, given with- 



The Teaching of Journalism 543 

out this, though it deal with identically the same subjects. 

The training of the journalist will at this point go 
through the same course as the training of other callings. 
The palpable thing about law, the objective fact it presents 
first to the layman, is procedure and form. This began 
legal education. A man entered a law office. He ran er- 
rands and served papers which taught him how suits were 
opened. A bright New York office boy in a law firm will 
know how many days can pass before some steps must be 
taken or be too late, better than the graduate of a law 
school. The law students in an office once endlessly copied 
forms and learned that phase of law. For generations 
men " eat their dinners " at the Inns of Court and learned 
no more. The law itself they learned through practice, 
at the expense of their clients. Anatomy was the obvious 
thing about medicine when Vesalius, of the strong head and 
weak heart, cleaned away the superstitions of part of the 
medical art and discovered a new world at twenty-eight. 
The medical training of even seventy years ago, twenty 
years after cellular pathology had dawned, held wearisome 
hours of dissection now known to be a waste. It is the 
functions of the body and its organs which we now know 
to be the more important, and not the bones, muscles, 
nerves, and organs considered as mere mechanism. 

The classroom is the patent thing about instruction. 
The normal schools lavished time on the tricks of teaching 
until flocks of instructors in the high schools and colleges 
could not inaccurately be divided into those who could 
teach and knew nothing and those who knew something and 
could not teach. Our colleges early thought they could 
weave in Hebrew and theology, and send out clergymen, 
and later tried to give the doctor a foundation on which 
eighteen subsequent months could graft all he needed of 
medicine. 

Reporting is the obvious aspect of journalism which the 
ignorant layman sees. Many hold the erroneous view that 
the end of a school of journalism is to train reporters. Re- 
porting is not journalism. It is the open door to the news- 



544 College Teaching 

paper office, partly because there are very few reporters 
of many years' service. Some of them are, but able men 
before long usually work out of a city-room, or gain 
charge of some field of city news, doing thus what is in 
fact reporting, but combined with editorial, critical, and 
correspondent work. Such is the Wall Street man, the local 
politics man, the City Hall man, or the Police Headquarters 
man, who gathers facts and counts acquaintance as one of 
his professional assets. But these men are doing, in their 
work, far more than reporting as it presents itself to those 
who see in the task only an assignment. Such men know 
the actual working of the financial mechanism, not as 
economists see it, but as Bagehot knew it. They under- 
stand the actual working of municipal machinery besides 
having a minute knowledge of character, decision, practice, 
and precedent in administration. In our real politics, big 
and little, they and the Washington and Albany corre- 
spondents are the only men who know both sides, are 
trusted with the secrets of both parties, and read closed 
pages of the book of the chronicles of the Republic. As 
for the Police Headquarters man, he too alone knows both 
police and crime, and no investigation surprises him by its 
revelations. If a man, for a season, has had the work of 
one of these posts, he comes to feel that he writes for an 
ignorant world, and if he have the precious gift of youth, 
looks on himself as favored of mortals early, seeing the 
events of which others hear, daily close to the center of 
affairs, knowing men as they are and storing confidence 
against the day of revelation. 

Men like these are, the very heart's core of a newspaper. 
Their posts train them. So do the key posts of a news- 
paper, its guiding and directing editors and those who do 
the thinking for thinking men by the hundred thousand in 
editorial, criticism, and article. It is for this order of work 
on a newspaper that a school of journalism trains. It is 
to these posts that, if its men are properly trained, its 
graduates rapidly ascend, after a brief apprenticeship 
in the city-room and a round in the routine work of a 



The Teaching of Journalism 545 



paper. Dull men, however educated, will never pass these 
grades, and not passing they will drop out. A school 
should sift such out; but so far, in all our professional 
training, it is only the best medical schools which are in- 
flexible in dealing with mediocrity. Most teachers know 
better, but let the shifty and dull pass by. The newspaper 
itself has to be inexorable, and no well-organized office 
helps twice the man who is dull once; but he and his kind 
come often enough to mar the record. 

Journalism, like other professions, has its body of special 
tasks and training, but, as in other callings, clear com- 
prehension of this body of needs will develop in instruc- 
tion slowly. The case system in law and the laboratory 
method in medicine came after some generations or cen- 
turies of professional work and are only a generation old. 
Any one who has sought to know the development of these 
two methods sees that much in our schools of journalism 
is where law and medical schools were sixty years ago. 
We are still floundering and have not yet solved the prob- 
lem of giving background, concision, accuracy, and in- 
terest to the report, of really editing copy and not merely 
condensing and heading it, of recognizing and developing 
the editorical and critical mind, and most of all, of shutting 
out early the shallow, the wrong-headed, the self-seeking, 
and the unballasted student. 

The very best law and medical schools get the better '^^^^^^ 
of this, and only the best. They are greatly aided by a college 
state examination which tests and tries all their work, l^^^^^_ 
braces their teaching, stimulates their men, and directs pressional 
their studies. This will inevitably come in journalism, "^^H^^ 
though most practicing newspaper men do not believe this. 
Neither did doctors before 1870 expect this. As the news- 
paper comes closer and closer into daily life, inflicts wounds 
without healing and does damage for which no remedy 
exists, the public will require of the writer on a daily at 
least as much proof of competency as it does of a plumber. 
This competency sharply divides between training in the 
technical work of the newspaper and in those studies that 



546 



College Teaching 



Kind of 
training in 
composition 
to be given 
students of 
journalism 



knowledge which newspaper work requires. Capacity to 
write with accuracy, with effect, with interest, and with 
style is the first and most difficult task among the technical 
requirements of the public journal. As has already been 
said, a gift for expression is needed, but even this cannot 
be exercised or developed unless a man has acquired dic- 
tion and come in contact with style, for all the arts rest 
on the imitation of accepted models. Many students in all 
schools of journalism come from immigrant families and 
are both inconceivably ignorant of English and incon- 
ceivably satisfied with their acquirement of English, as we 
all are with a strange tongue we have learned to speak. 
Even in families with two or more generations of American 
life, the vocabulary is limited, construction careless, and 
the daily contact with any literature, now that family 
prayers and Bible reading are gone, almost nil. Of the 
spoken English of teachers in our public schools, consid- 
ered as the basis of training for the writer, it is not seemly 
to speak. Everybody knows college teachers who have 
never shaken off the slovenly phrases and careless syntax 
of their homes. The thesis on which advanced degrees are 
conferred is a fair and just measure of the capacity to write 
conferred by eleven years of education above the " grammar 
grades." The old drill in accurate and exact rendering of 
Greek and Latin was once the best training for the writer; 
but slovenly sight reading has reduced its value, and a large 
part of its true effect was because the youth who studied 
the classics fifty years ago came in a far larger share than 
today from families whose elders had themselves had their 
expression and vocabulary trained and developed by liberal 
studies. The capacity for good writing apparent at Oxford 
and Cambridge rests in no small measure on the classical 
family horizon in teacher and taught. 

Those who turn to journalism naturally care for writing, 
but in an art to " care " is little and most have never had 
the personal environment, the training, or the personal 
command of English to enable them to do more than write 
a stiff prose with a narrow vocabulary and no sense of 



The Teaching of Journalism 547 



style. Even those who have some such capacity are 
hampered by the family heritage already outlined. College 
writing is in the same condition; but the average college 
man is not expecting to earn his living by his typewriter. 
In order to receive a minimum capacity in writing enough 
to pass, every year of study for journalism must have a 
writing course and the technical work must run to con- 
stant writing. From start to finish there must be patient, 
individual correction. The use of the typewriter must be 
made obligatory. Rigid discipline must deal with errors in 
spelling, grammar, the choice of words and phrases. 
Previous college training in composition must in general be 
revised and made over to secure directness and simplicity. 
At the end, the utmost that can be gained for nineteen out 
of twenty is some facility, a little sense of style and dic- 
tion, and copy that will be above the average of the news- 
paper and not much above that. Examine the writing in 
the newspapers issued by some schools and the work in 
schools that do not, and a distressingly large portion is 
either dull or " smart," the last, worst fault of the two. 

Reporting is the first use to which writing is put and Effective 
ir c> 1 T-" 1 • 1 J training in 

through which the writer is tramed. r or this, abundant ma- reporting 
terial is indispensable, as much as clinical material for a ^^f^^^^ 
medical school. As the medical schools gravitate to cities, large urban 
and the rural institutions flicker out one by one, so m 
the end the effectively trained reporter will gravitate to 
a large city. Towns of under 20,000 population furnish 
a very tame sort of reporting, and those who get this 
training in them find reporting is under new conditions in 
a great metropolis. In such a place the peril is that 
routine news will take too much of the precious time for 
training the reporter and the demands of academic hours 
will interfere with sharing in the best of big stories. 

Routine is the curse of the newspaper, and it is at its f^uns m^ 
worst in reporting. In its face the four hard things to get the art of 
are the combination of the vivid, the accurate, and the in- reporting 
formed and the condensed story. Equipped newspapers 
of high standards like the New York World require re- 



548 



College Teaching 



The teach- 
ing of copy- 
editing 



course to reference books, the " morgue," and the files in 
every story where details can be added to the day's digging 
in that particular news vein. Condensation comes next. 
The young cub reporter generally shuns both. He hates 
to look up his subject. He spreads himself like a sitting 
hen over one egg. Both must be required for efficient 
training. Compression it is difficult to enforce in a school 
where paper bills are small or do not exist and the space 
pressure of the large daily is absent. A number of dailies 
of large circulation are cultivating very close handling of 
news and space for feature and woman stuff with very 
great profit, and the schools give too little attention to this 
new phase of the newspaper. In all papers, the old ten- 
dency to print anything that came by wire is gone and mere 
" news " has not the place it once had. In particular, local 
news was cut down one half in a majority of dailies in cities 
of 250,000 and over from August, 1914, to the close of the 
war. The small daily in places of less than 50,000 and 
weeklies did not do this, which is one reason why great 
tracts of the United States were not ready for war when 
it came. Woe to the land whose watchmen sleep! 

Copy-editing is the next task in the training of the coming 
newspaper man. On the small daily and weekly, there is 
little of this, but it is practiced on the metropolitan daily. 
There ten to twelve men are needed, doing nothing else but 
editing copy. In the office, two or three years are needed 
to bring a man to this work. No school can teach this un- 
less its men give at least a full day to editing a flood of 
copy that will fill a 12 to 16 page newspaper. Where the 
work of the students runs day by day on the copy of one of 
the lesser dailies, editing for that purpose is secured, but 
not the intensive training needed to handle the copy-desk 
requirements of newspapers in a city of 1,000,000 popula- 
tion or more in its urban ring. Success in this field is 
proved when men go direct from the classroom to such a 
desk. This carries with it tuition in heads for all needs, 
make-up, and the close editing of special articles, features, 
and night Associated Press copy. 



The Teaching of Journalism 549 

Newspaper training will always deal also with subjects A liberal 
and needs a course containing a larger proportion of the must be 
studies usually taught in college or offered in its curricu- part of 

1 Ti/r 1- • • 1 1 • • 1 training 

lum. Medicine requires the same chemistry, organic and for jour- 
inorganic, the same physics, and the same elementary '^alism 
biology as our college courses cover; these sciences are 
more or less like a Mother Hubbard, no very close fit and 
concealing more than is revealed. Johns Hopkins has 
been able at this point to apply tests, personal and particu- 
lar, gauging both teacher and taught, more searching than 
are elsewhere required. The fruits abundantly justify this 
course, and in time some school of journalism will apply 
like tests to history, — ancient, medieval, and modern, — 
political economy, political science, and the modern 
languages, which are the basis of its work. The practical 
difficulty is that it is far easier to test the three sciences 
just mentioned than history, politics, and economics. No 
one will seriously assert that these are as rigorously taught 
as chemistry, physics, and biology. The personal equation 
of the teacher counts for more, it is both easier and more 
tempting to inject social theories, not yet tested by current 
facts, than in science. Sciolism is less easily detected in 
courses which deal with the humanitarian field than in 
science, but it is not less perilous and it is not less possible 
to apply the same experimental tests as in the scientific 
laboratory. He is blind, however, who does not see that 
much advance in the current teaching at any time of history, 
politics, and economics has had its experimental tests as 
complete and as convincing as in any laboratory, which 
certain teachers wholly refuse to accept — sometimes be- 
cause they are behind the times, sometimes because they 
are before the times; sometimes they are in no time what- 
ever but the fool time of vain imaginings that somewhere, 
somewhen, and somehow there is a place where human de- 
sires are stronger than the inevitable laws which guide and 
guard the physics, the chemistry, and the biology of social 
bodies. 

A notable difference exists between the views of law 



550 



College Teaching 



Social 
sciences 
must "be 
related 
to life 



taught and discussed in a law school and in a school of 
political science. The medical lectures preserve a sobriety 
in discussing sundry biological problems not always present 
in advanced courses of biology. Both lecturers, in both 
instances, are scientific men, both are faithful to the truths 
of science, but as a distinguished economist, who in his 
early years had been accused of being an advanced social- 
ist, said, after he had won a comfortable fortune by judi- 
cious investments in business, banking, and realty, to a 
friend of earlier and far-distant years: " My principles re- 
main exactly the same, but, I admit, my point of view has 
changed." There is not one biology of the medical school, 
another of the biological laboratory. Neither does the 
body of law differ in a law school or in a school of politi- 
cal science. The principles remain exactly the same. Of 
necessity, however, the point of view has changed and treat- 
ment has changed with it. So has responsibility. 

The subject offers some difficulties. The analogy is not 
at all points exact. Medicine and law have a definite body 
of doctrine. Schools of biology and political science have 
not, but granting all this, it still remains true that exactly 
as the law student and the medical student must have what 
is defined, established, and unmistakable in the world of 
law and of life, so the student looking to journalism needs 
and must have what is defined, established, and unmistak- 
able in economics and political science. Here, again, no 
one will pretend that the usual college course in either of 
these branches is taught with the same determination to keep 
within the same metes and bounds of recorded, tested, and 
ascertained facts as is true of courses in physics, chemistry, 
and biology. The boundary marked is less distinct. The 
periodic law by which the atomic values of elements are 
established is more definite than the periodic law under 
which wealth is distributed through society, though in the 
end some Mendelleeff will record the periodic law of social 
elements in their composition and action. Research is 
needed and must be free. Theory and speculation are as 
necessary to secure an experiment and observation. The 



The Teaching of Journalism 551 



principle is clear, however, that the student who is to make 
professional use of a topic needs to have a definite and 
established instruction, not required in one to whom topic 
is incidental. The medical student or law student who has 
a new view of economic results or a new theory of the cause 
and purpose of our judicial and constitutional system as 
organized to protect the few against the many will work 
this off in the school of life, and is unaffected in his pro- 
fessional work. The journalist within his first year's work 
must apply his college economics and political science, and 
a wrong starting point may have serious consequences to 
his own career in the end, perhaps to society. Fortunately 
the work of the journalist so brings him in contact with 
things as they are, that the body of newspaper writers, taken 
as a whole, represents the stability of society. The convic- 
tions and principles created by their daily work tend this 
way. The labor union has few illusions to the reporter, and 
it was the editorial writers of the land who carried the gold 
standard in 1896, when many a publisher was hazy and 
scary. The causes of crime grow pretty clear to a police 
reporter, and a few assignments in which a newspaper man 
sees a riot convinces him of the value of public order, 
rigidly enforced. None the less, the reporter should start 
right on these sciences, basic in his calling; in the end, 
as the medical school has steadied the college teaching of 
chemistry and biology, so the school of journalism, the 
school of business, and the school of railroad practice et al 
will steady economics and political science. But the duty 
of the college and university remains clear, to be as watch- 
ful that the sciences of social action and reaction shall be 
taught with the same adherence to the established and the 
same responsibility to their professional use as the sciences 
of physical, chemical, and biological action and reaction. 
The college studies needed as preparation for journalism 
call for a special proficiency and content as much as for a 
professional viewpoint. The journalist makes precisely the 
same use of his fundamental studies as does the medical 
student of his. If a future lawyer neglects his chemistry 



Especially 
adapted 
content in 
social sci- 
ences to 
meet pro- 
fessional 
needs 



552 



College Teaching 



General 
science 
course of 
inestima"ble 
■worth to 
the jour- 
nalist 



In history 
attention 
must he 
focalized 
on modern 
movements 



and biology, it is of little moment. He can get up what 
he needs of a case. A medical student who neglects these 
studies will find that the best schools bar him. In time 
the school of journalism will refuse the college passing 
mark for admission. The newspaper man almost from the 
start has to use his economics, his political science, and 
his history. Elementary economics is in great measure 
given to theory, though a change has begun. For the 
journalist, this course needs to be brought in close con- 
tact with the actual economic working of society. The 
theory may be useful to the man who expects in the end 
to teach economics. It is of next to no value to the writer 
on public affairs. Of what possible use is it to him to 
learn the various theoretic explanations of Boehm-Bawerk's 
cost and value? The newspaper man needs to see these 
things and be taught them as Bagehot wrote on them and 
Walker and Sumner taught them. 

In Columbia, this change is already recognized as neces- 
sary. So in political science, the actual working of the 
body politic needs to be taught, and this is too often 
neglected for explanatory theories and a special interpreta- 
tion. A single elementary course in chemistry, physics, or 
biology presupposes two or three more courses which fill 
out the special opening sketch. Newspaper works requires 
a general account of science, derided by the scientist who 
is himself satisfied in his own education with a similar 
sketch in history. These general science courses are being 
smuggled in as " history of science," or " scientific nomen- 
clature." Much can be done in a year with such a three- 
hour course, if the teaching be in exceptional hands; but 
adequate treatment requires two years of three hours, one 
on organic and one on inorganic science. The latter should 
give a view of anthropology and the former dwell on the 
application of science in modern industry. 

College history courses end thirty to fifty years ago. 
The journalist needs to know closely the last thirty years, 
at home and abroad. Weeks given to colonial charters in 
American history are as much waste as to set a law student 



The Teaching of Journalism 



553 



to a special study of the Year Books of Edward I and II. 
College students have to put up with a good deal of this 
kind of waste. If twelve hours can be assigned to history, 
three should be on the classical period, three introductory 
to the modern world, three to European history since 1870, 
and three hours for American history; at least two of these 
three hours should go to American history since Garfield. 

The writing course should be used to supplement this 
by articles on both these fields so that a student will learn 
the sources of history for the last thirty years, its treaties, 
its elections, its movements, its statutes, its reference works. 
He will need all this knowledge as soon as he has to write 
as a correspondent, a feature writer, or an editor, on the 
important topics of the day. Statistics need to supplement 
economics and advanced courses, two, if possible, should 
give knowledge and method in the approach to new prob- 
lems in currency, banking, trusts, and unions. At least one 
general course in philosophy is needed, and Freud is as 
important for him here as Aristotle. The contact of the 
newspaper man with book reviewing, book advertising, and 
the selection of fiction and news in supplements and maga- 
zines calls for the " survey course in English literature " 
and a knowledge of the current movement in letters for 
thirty years back. In science, in politics, in history, in 
economics, in philosophy, and in letters, it is indispensable 
that the young newspaper man should be introduced by 
lecture, and still more by reading, to the speaking figures 
of his own day on affairs, political life, letters, the theatre, 
and art. 

These things are indispensable. The man who knows 
them can learn to write and edit, but the man who can only 
write and edit and does not know them will speedily run 
dry in the newspaper, weekly and monthly. News is today 
standardized. Each President, each decade, each great war, 
the Associated Press and City Press Associations cover 
more completely the current news. Presentation, comment, 
handling special articles, grow each year more important 
and more in demand. The price of supplement and maga- 



Becent 
progress in 
all subjects 
must be 
summed up 
for the 
student of 
journalism 



The jour- 
nalist must 
ever be a 
student of 
human af- 
fairs 



554 College Teaching 

zine articles has trebled in the last twenty years. The 
newspaper grows more and more to be a platform, par- 
ticularly the Sunday newspaper and popular magazine. 
If a man is to be a figure in the day's conflict and on its 
wider issues, he needs the special training just outlined, 
and when this outline is begun, he will find the toil of the 
years in these fields has but begun. About the safe 
harbors of journalism where men come and go, dealing 
with the aff"airs of and finding the ready market of the day, 
are the reefs strewn with the wrecks of ready and often 
" brilliant " writers whose few brief years left them empty 
and adrift, telling all they meet that no man can long earn 
a fair income and hold his own through the years in 
journalism. 

A school can ameliorate all this by one course which. re- 
quires much reading of the Bible and Shakespeare, by 
furnishing in the school library abundant access to the 
best current prose and verse of the day which will directly 
appeal to the young reader, since each decade has its new 
gods in letters, and by selecting teachers for the profes- 
sional courses who have shown that they can write at least 
well enough to be paid by newspapers and magazines for 
their work. The teacher in writing whose work is not 
salable is not as likely to teach students how to write so 
that their work can sell as one who has earned his living 
by selling his stuff. 

Talcott Williams 

School of Journalism, Columbia University 



B 



XXVIII 
BUSINESS EDUCATION 

USINESS education of collegiate grade is a very recent Evolution of 

l)llSill6S*I 

development. The world's first commercial college education 



was established at Antwerp in 1852, while the forerunner 
of American institutions of this sort, the Wharton School, 
was founded in 1881. Others followed in the nineties, but 
the general establishment of schools of commerce as parts 
of colleges and universities, as well as the inclusion of 
business subjects in the curricula of liberal colleges, took 
place after 1900. This sudden flowering at the top was 
preceded by a long evolution quite typical of the develop- 
ment of education in all the branches of learning to which 
institutions devote time because of their cultural or pro- 
fessional worth. 

Some practical end and not the desire for abstract knowl- 
edge prompted early instruction and stimulated business 
education as well as education in general through various 
stages of progress. Of course all education is a process 
whereby technical operations and abstract truth developed 
by many generations are systematized, compressed, and 
imparted to individuals in a relatively short time. 

The first stage in the evolution in a given field may be 
called the apprentice stage. Just as physicians, lawyers, 
and in fact practitioners in all the professions and crafts 
trained their assistants in their establishments for the pur- 
pose of making them proficient in their daily work, so did 
merchants at this stage give apprentice training in com- 
mercial branches to their employees. Traditional ways of 
carrying out certain transactions, convenient rules of thumb, 
and habits of neatness and reliability were passed on in a 
given establishment. As industry grew and guilds were 
formed, the trainino; tended to become more standardized 
and merchants joined in establishing guild schools for their 

555 



556 College Teaching 

employees. Many such schools were conducted in the 
various crafts, and their modern counterparts are the well- 
known vocational or trade schools. This vocational train- 
ing stage was developed by business men for persons not 
employed as productive craftsmen but rather as workers in 
business offices which administered production and directly 
attended to selling and exchange, and for others looking 
forward to such employment. At this stage there grew up 
also private schools, usually conducted by teachers es- 
pecially proficient in particular lines of service. Thus 
inventors of shorthand systems, devisers of systems of pen- 
manship, and authors of methods of bookkeeping and ac- 
counting set up schools in these specialties. Here we have 
training outside the business house itself to prepare for 
participation in business, and the enterprises flourish be- 
cause there is a demand for the people they train. At this 
stage rules of thumb are supplanted by systems based on 
principles, and the way is paved for the technical school 
stage. The training here is practical, but it is broad and 
based on scientific knowledge. This stage is not reached 
in all fields of endeavor, for some stop at the first or the 
second, while on the other hand the existence of a higher 
stage of education does not preclude the continuation at the 
same time of agencies carrying on instruction after the 
mode of the lower stages. With the rise of the factory 
system and the extension of capitalistic production and 
industrial integration in the form of " big business," there 
came a demand in the business world for men widely in- 
formed and thoroughly trained. Not only did men to meet 
this demand have to have good foundations of general 
education, but they needed technical preparation in the 
specialized field of business itself. 

Business science is not only applied science, but it is 
secondary or derived from a number of the fundamental 
sciences. It draws its principles from the physical sciences 
of physics, chemistry, geoloo:y, and biology; it utilizes the 
engineering applications of these sciences; it derives valu- 



Business Education 557 

able information from physiology and psychology, and it 
makes use of the modern languages. Borrowing from all 
the pure sciences and their applied counterparts, it formu- 
lates its own regulations so that it may manage the work 
of the world economically, so that it may bring about the 
production of goods necessary to meet humanity's many, 
varied, and recurrent wants, and make these commodities 
available in advantageous times and places with individual 
title to them established according to existing standards of 
personal justice and social expediency. 

The final stage, the cultural stage, is reached when the 
educator determines that the field in question is so much 
a part of the general civilization or intellectual wealth of 
the world that it ought to receive some consideration, not 
only by specialists in the field but also by the student 
pursuing a well-planned course of a general or non- 
technical character designed to enable him to appreciate 
and play some role in the world in which he lives. It is 
because new branches of human endeavor constantly blos- 
som forth into this stage, while more ancient branches 
wither and no longer bear fruit of contemporary signifi- 
cance, that the very humanities themselves change as well 
as realities. 

Business as a field of human thought and activity has 
reached this stage, and educators reckon with it in laying 
out courses of general elementary, secondary, and collegiate 
study. 

No one would contend that educators should in any 
way cease to offer general or cultural courses, but they 
should insist that these general courses embrace all of 
humanity's wealth, including that which modern society 
contributed, and that they should with each addition re- 
shape their general offerings so that appropriate propor- 
tions will be preserved. 

Before the development of modern highly organized pro- 
duction, business training Avould have been synonymous 
with commercial training; that is, training to prepare men 



558 



College Teaching 



Definition 
of business 
education 



to play their parts in the exchange of goods. This would 
embrace correspondence with customers, the keeping of 
records of stock, the cost of stock, making out bills, and 
attending to all financial operations which were associated 
with marketing and exchange. Successful training would 
imply, of course, the broad foundational grasp of arithme- 
tic, reading, and writing of the mother tongue and of such 
foreign languages as the nature of the market might re- 
quire, a grasp of various money values, banking procedure, 
and other information concerning financial affairs, the 
means of transportation, freight charges, etc. Manual skill 
had to be developed in penmanship, in the technique of 
bookkeeping, general office organization, and filing. With 
the invention of mechanical and labor-saving office devices, 
facility in operating them was required to supplement skill 
in penmanship. 

Of course, with the development of the market the com- 
plexity of office management increased. In modern times 
the business man concerns himself not only with the duties 
of the merchant and exchanger, but also with the organiza- 
tion of industry and economical procedure. The modern 
business man, entrepreneur or manager, and all those as- 
sisting him in the discharp;e of his duties, perform functions 
in two directions: first, in the direction of the market in 
the establishment of price, in the selling of his goods, and 
in attending to all matters which flow therefrom, and sec- 
ondly toward the production plant itself; while he employs 
technicians who know how to perform operations skillfully 
according to the laws of science, nevertheless he must know 
how to buy labor and how to organize labor and materials 
and put them in coordinate working relationship most 
economically. 

We can therefore define business education as education 
which directly prepares people to discharge the business 
function; namely, the economical organization of men and 
materials in production and the most advantageous dis- 
tribution and exchange of the commodities or service for 
consumption. 



Business Education 



559 



In the modern world it is hard sometimes to draw the 
line between the field of technology in production and the 
field of business management in production, but in general 
the two functions are fairly distinct. The technician is 
interested in operations of production, while the business 
manager is interested in their economical organization and 
in their government with relation to market conditions. 
The very engineers themselves must be selected, engineered, 
and paid by the business man. The business manager is 
interested in keeping the total price of his commodities 
above his total entrepreneur's cost. The technician is in- 
terested in inventing and operating the machinery of pro- 
duction, if and when the business man determines what 
operations v/ill be profitable. 

The aims of business education are, first and foremost, 
professional; second, civic; and third, cultural. At no 
time can the three be separated, but it is possible to devise 
a curriculum which stresses one or two of the aims. It is 
also possible to treat a subject so as to emphasize technical 
and practical skill or to promote philosophical reflection. 

The professional aim prompted the establishment of the 
first schools or colleges of commerce, and it is kept to the 
fore not only in institutions giving courses of study which 
lead to distinctive degrees in commerce, but also in places 
which give specialized instruction in particular fields. We 
shall consider curricula of the following types: 

Type I. Curriculum designed to give the student train- 
ing to meet a definite professional requirement 
established by law. 

Type II. Curriculum designed to make a student profi- 
cient in a particular narrow field. 

Type III. Curriculum leading to a baccalaureate degree 
in commerce or business, vertical type. 

Type IV. Curriculum leading to a baccalaureate degree 
in commerce or business, horizontal type. 



Aims and 
curricula of 
"business 
education 



560 College Teaching 



TYPE I. A TECHNICAL COURSE, DESIGNED TO PREPARE 

STUDENTS TO MEET THE STATE REQUIREMENTS 

FOR CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS 

Entrance requirements for students matriculating for the 
whole course as candidates for a Diploma of Graduate 
in Accountancy — high school graduation, college en- 
trance or a State Regents' C.P.A. Qualifying Certifi- 
cate. 

Non-matriculated students — mature persons wishing to 
pursue certain subjects without academic credit. 

Prescribed 

Accounting, Theory, Practice and Problems 

4 terms, 4 hours a week — 256 hours 
This course covers general accounting for the 
single proprietor, partnerships and corporations, 
embracing financing, manufacturing, and selling 
operations, with agencies and branches, the forma- 
tion of mergers, syndicates, holding companies, 
etc.; dissolutions and reorganizations. 

Cost accounting 1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 

Auditing 1 term, . 2 hours a w eek — 32 hours 

Public utilities accounting 

1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 

Judicial (fiduciary) accounting 

1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 
Advanced accounting, theory, and problems 

2 term, 2 hours a week — 64 hours 
Commercial Law 

3 terms, 3 hours a week 144 hours 

Covering general principles of law, contracts, and 
all forms of special contracts of interest to the 
business man, especially those related to personal 
property, risk insurance, credit and real property, 
and forms of business associations. 



Business Education 561 

Economics 

Economic principles 

1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
Economic development of the United States 

1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
Money and banking 1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
English — Written, Business English 

2 terms, 2 hours a week — 64 hours 
Oral English — Public Speaking 

4 terms, 1 hour a week — 64 hours 
Additional electives — one course of at least 96 hours in 
Government and enough other elective subjects in 
technical commercial work or Political Science to ac- 
crue at least a total of 1000 hours. 

The available additional electives in accounting are 
advanced courses in different special fields such as 
Advanced Cost Accounting, Municipal Accounting — 
General and Departmental, Systems for particular in- 
dustries or forms of business. Public Utilities Rate 
Making and Regulation, etc. 

In Government the available electives include such 
subjects as American Government and Citizenship, 
American Constitutional Law, International Law, Po- 
litical Theory, Comparative Government, State Legisla- 
tion and Administration, Municipal Administration, 
etc. 

In Political Science, courses in Economics and Busi- 
ness, such as Economic Problems, Business Organi- 
zation and Management, Public Finance, Foreign 
Trade, Foreign Exchange, Insurance, Advertising, 
Salesmanship, etc., are available, while general and 
special courses may be taken in Sociology and Statis- 
tics. 

Courses of study of this sort in a specialized field are 
offered in colleges usually at night for students who are 
in active business during the day. With more or less ex- 
tensive additions in scientific, literary, and linguistic fields 



562 College Teaching 

they become the curricula leading to baccalaureate degrees 
as represented by Type III, to follow. Large private insti- 
tutes or schools conducted for profit and also correspond- 
ence institutions offer similar courses. Other groups of 
studies in particular fields are: in banking, in transporta- 
tion or traffic, in sales management, including advertising 
and salesmanship, and in foreign trade. 

A group in Foreign Trade will typify this sort of course 
of study, which differs from the one in Accountancy just 
given because the make-up will be determined wholly by 
each institution quite independent of legally established 
professional standards. 

TYPE II. TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR WORK IN A 
SPECIAL FIELD, FOREIGN TRADE 

Principles of economics 

1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
Economic resources of the U. S. 

1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
Commercial geography 

1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
Money and banking 1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
Foreign exchange 1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 
Foreign credit 1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 

International law 1 term, 3 hours a week — 48 hours 

Tariff history of the U. S. 

1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 
U. S. and foreign customs administrations 

1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 
Export technique 1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 

Practical steamship operation 

1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 
Marketing and salesmanship 

General course 1 term, 2 hours a week — 32 hours 

Special courses as desired on South American Mar- 
kets, Mediterranean Markets, Russian Markets, 
Northwest Empire Markets, etc. 



Business Education 563 

Foreign Languages: 

Practical courses in Conversation and correspond- 
ence in French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, 
Russian, etc., according to market in which trade 
is specialized, at least 

4 terms, 3 hours a week — 192 hours 

Total (in 2 years, with weekly schedule of 10 or 12 hrs.) 

672 hours 

A special course of this sort usually leads to a certificate 
but not a diploma or degree. Obviously the technical aim 
is very prominent, though civic and cultural benefits of no 
mean character will of necessity be derived. New groups 
will be found as new fields of business become important 
and develop definite, recognizable requirements of a 
scientific sort. Naturally each such specialty goes through 
the usual evolution and contributes its philosophical dis- 
tillation or essence to the cultural college course. 

When we come to the construction of a curriculum lead- 
ing to a bachelor's degree in business, economics, or com- 
merce, we have the problems of the engineering schools. 
Just how far will specialization be carried, in what sequence 
will the foundational subjects and the specialties be taken 
up, and to what extent will other more general subjects not 
directly contributing to a technical end be admitted? In 
most institutions of good standards the degree is regarded 
as representing not only technical proficiency in business 
but also some acquaintance with science, politics, and let- 
ters in general. The question (already an old one in 
schools of engineering) arises then concerning the best way 
to arrange the special or distinctively business subjects in 
relation to the more general. Although there are a number 
of variations, two outstanding types are recognizable. We 
may devise labels for them: the vertical curriculum, which 
offers both general and special courses side by side right 
up through the college course, and the horizontal, which 
requires a completion of the whole or nearly all of the 
general group during the first two years of college before 
the special subjects are pursued in the last two. 



564 College Teaching 



TYPE III. VERTICAL TYPE OF UNDERGRADUATE 

CURRICULUM, LEADING TO THE DEGREE 

OF B. S. IN ECONOMICS 

Entrance: College entrance requirements. 

Requirement for graduation: 74 units, of which 40 must be 
in general business and in liberal subjects, with 34 in 
specialized fields of business activity, to be taken after 
the freshman year. 

A unit here represents successful work for one hour a week for 
two semesters. Therefore the total 74 is equivalent to 148 of the 
usual collegiate units. 

Freshman Required Work 
English composition 2 hours a week — 2 terms 

English, history of the language 1 hour a week — 2 terms 
English literature 1 hour a week — 2 terms 

Chemistry — general 

or ^3 hours a week — 2 terms 

Business law 

Physical education 2 hours a week — 2 terms 

Government — federal and state 3 hours a week — 2 terms 
Principles of economics 3 hours a week — 2 terms 

Economic resources 2 hours a week — 2 terms 

Accounting general course 3 hours a week — 2 terms 

Sophomore Required Work 

English literature and composition 

3 hours a week — 2 terms 

Physical education 2 hours a week — 2 terms 

General history 2 hours a week — 2 terms 

Required before End of Junior Year 

Additional political science 2 hours a week — 2 terms 
Physical education 1 hour a week — 2 terms 

Required before Graduation 
Additional history 3 hours a week — 2 terms 



Business Education 565 

Physical education 1 hour a week — 2 terms 

A modern language beyond the first year in college 

3 hours a week — 4 terms 
Total required units 40 units 

Elect after the Freshman year courses aggregating 34 
additional units in fields of 
I. Business law 4 courses, 10 units available 

II. Commerce and transportation 

9 courses, 19 units available 

III. Economics 8 courses, 15 units available 

IV. Finance and accounting 

20 courses, 53 units available 
V. Geography and industry 

11 courses, 26 units available 

VI. Insurance 7 courses, 16 units available 

VII. Political science 22 courses, 43 units available 

VIII. Sociology 6 courses, 12 units available 

Total required for the degree, 74 units 

There is a school which grants a degree in Commerce for 
the equivalent of 36 of these units or 72 of the usual college 
credits, if the student has business experience, and for the 
equivalent of 48 of these units or 96 of the usual college 
credits if he has not. The course is essentially like Type I 
and includes no broad liberal requirements in literature, 
foreign language, and history and on the other hand is 
not so strictly prescribed as Type I. A strictly technical 
degree may be desirable for such a short course, provided 
the prescription is severe and includes languages. Gener- 
ally it seems best to reserve degrees for full college courses 
of four years or more which include a reasonable general 
requirement in languages and science. This leads us to 
Type IV, or the curriculum which requires the first regular 
two years of the college course prescribed for one of the 
liberal degrees and permits business specialization in the 
last two undergraduate years or these with an additional 
postgraduate year. One institution requires the first three 



566 College Teaching 

years as a foundation for a two-year course in business, and 
one conducts a postgraduate school of business administra- 
tion leading to the degree of Ph.D. in Business Economics. 
No doubt postgraduate work will be continued mainly in the 
research direction, but undergraduate day and continuation 
courses will be devoted mainly to preparation for business. 

It is not necessary to illustrate Type IV, because the first 
two years consist simply of the Freshman and Sophomore 
work of any sort of liberal college course. Classical, Scien- 
tific, or Modern Language, while the succeeding years are 
made up of special work in Economics and Business of more 
or less concentrated character. 

The advantage of the type is obviously administrative. 
The whole vexing problem of insuring fairly wide cultiva- 
tion along with opportunities for specialization is con- 
veniently settled by giving general training, most of it 
remote from business work, for two years, after which the 
student is considered cultivated enough to withstand the 
blighting effect of specialization. But there are serious 
pedagogical objections to this arrangement which make the 
vertical plan seem preferable. A student coming from one 
of our constantly improving high schools of commerce is 
checked for two years and given time to forget all the book- 
keeping and other commercial work which he has learned 
and on which advanced commercial instruction* may be 
built, while he pursues an academic course. It would be 
far better to continue the modern languages, the mathe- 
matics, and natural sciences, along with business courses. 
Furthermore there is much to be done by educators in 
arranging such parallel sequences of subjects so that ad- 
vantage may be taken of vocational interest to stimulate 
broad and deep study of related fundamentals. Consider- 
able improvement could be made over Type III, but that 
type seems better than the one we have styled " horizontal." 

In all these courses of study we quite properly find both 
the philosophical and analytical courses, those which are 
historical and descriptive and those of detailed practical 
technique; we find economic theory, industrial history, busi- 



Business Education 567 

ness management, and practical accounting; we find theory 
of money and banking, history of banking in the United 
States, and practical banking; we find theory of interna- 
tional exchange, tariff history, and the technique of customs 
administration. Concerning methods of teaching particular 
subjects we shall speak later. 

Seldom do we find curricula drawn up with the purely 
civic end in view, though many schools and associations 
throughout the country are agitating the question of organ- 
ized training of men for public service. Strictly speaking, 
this kind of training is both professional and civic because 
it is designed to make men proficient in carrying on the 
business of the State. In New York City the municipal 
college conducts courses of this sort for persons in the 
city service, while private bureaus of municipal research 
conduct their own courses. So far in America no courses 
are yet accepted officially for entrance into public service 
or as the only qualification for advancement in the service. 
Nevertheless, progress is being made in this direction. The 
curricula offered include courses in Government and es- 
pecially Municipal Government, Public Finance and Taxa- 
tion, the practical organization and administration of 
various departments such as Police, Charities, Public 
Works, the establishment and maintenance of special sys- 
tems of municipal accounts. 

But the great civic benefit comes from general courses in 
business, for the business man who has a real grasp of his 
work and sees it in the light of general social welfare be- 
comes a good citizen. Business education gives some sense 
of the interdependence of industry, personal ethics, and 
government. The broadly trained business man realizes 
that he is in a sense a servant of the community, that his 
property is wrapped up with the welfare of his fellow men, 
and that what he has is a trust which society grants to him 
to be conducted after the manner of a good steward. Such 
training reveals to him the raison d'etre of labor legisla- 
tion, factory laws, the various qualifications of the prop- 
erty right, the necessity for taxation, and the importance 



568 College Teaching 



of good government to all the citizens of the State both as 
cooperative agents in production and as consumers. Con- 
tinued and improved business education will elevate the 
mind of the merchant and the manager so that its horizon 
is no longer the profit balance but the welfare of all society. 

The cultural aim of business courses is consciously kept 
in mind by the makers of curricula for colleges of liberal 
arts and sciences which permit a rather free choice of 
electives in the department of Economics and Business or 
of Political Science, according to the departmental organiza- 
tion of the institution. Here, of course, we find Economics, 
which bears to practical business much the relation which 
Philosophy bears to active life in general. We find also 
courses in Money and Banking, usually offered from the 
historical and descriptive rather than the technical point 
of view. Recently, however, colleges have included in this 
field of election practical courses in Accountancy and Com- 
mercial Law. The tendency is in the direction of including 
more and more of the practical and technical courses, al- 
though the historical and philosophical courses are retained. 
Nevertheless the cultural value is undiminished, unless one 
were to maintain that nothing which is exact can be cultural. 
Methods of The field of business is so wide and embraces so many 
subjects that the methods of teaching giving the best results 
will be varied and used in different combinations with dif- 
ferent subjects. Those subjects which are practical and 
largely habit forming, such as stenography, typewriting, 
bookkeeping, and the manipulation of mechanical and labor- 
saving office devices, are of course taught by some method 
of training which will insure quick reaction. In these 
courses the object is to cultivate habits of manual dexterity 
and habits of orderliness and neatness. Here we find that 
exposition is reduced to a minimum, lectures are few, recita- 
tions do not exist to any great extent, but that practice, 

1st, to secure proper form, and 

2d, to secure speed, 
is the controlling aim of the method. The teachers show 
their ingenuity in devising exercises which will give ac- 



teaching 



Business Education 569 

curacy of form and then develop speed without sacrifice of 
accuracy. 

In colleges these courses are reduced to a minimum be- 
cause they are usually cared for in lower schools, but for 
students who come directly to the commercial college with- 
out them, preparatory courses of this sort are often con- 
ducted. 

Among the technical subjects the one which calls for the 
most practice is, of course, Accountancy, first for the single 
proprietor, next for the partnership, and finally for the 
corporation. Various methods of presenting Accountancy 
have been suggested. Very few teachers employ extensive 
recitation work in this field. It is found most desirable 
to have periods of at least two hours' duration, so that the 
teacher can give such exposition and lecture work at the 
beginning of the period as he may see fit, and the class 
may then take up practice. In some schools it is customary 
to have one course in theory, another course in practical 
accounting, and another course in problems of accounting. 
However, the tendency seems to be in the direction of 
making these three aspects of the work mutually helpful, 
and the course is offered as a course in Accounting, Theory, 
Practice, and Problems. The theory is set forth in a 
lecture, practice is given with typical situations in mind, 
and then related problems are taken up for solution. Many 
excellent texts are now appearing and can be used in the 
customary manner. Assignments in these books tend to 
make unnecessary many long or formal lectures, but there 
still remains the need for classroom talks and quizzes. As 
the course progresses, the problems become more and more 
difficult and complicated, and the final problem work is 
exceedingly difficult and calls for a considerable power 
of analysis, clarity of statement, and care in arrangement 
on the part of the student. 

A complete course of this, sort usually covers two and 
a half or three years. At the end of the first year of gen- 
eral accountancy, special subjects may be pursued parallel 
with the general course. The order in which these special- 



570 College Teaching 

ties are introduced is usually Cost Accounting, Auditing 
Systems, Judicial or Fiduciary Accounting, and then other 
special branches such as Brokers' Accounts, Public Utilities 
Accounting, Foreign Exchange Accounting, etc. 

General Accounting is very important both as an instru- 
ment for the business man to use and as a training to insure 
the grasp of general business organization. It is the opin- 
ion of the writer that whether a business man expects to 
become an accountant or not, he should have a thorough and 
technical grasp of this subject. In these specialties it is 
necessary to depend upon lectures rather than textbooks, 
not only because textbooks here are few and other works 
are not well adapted to teaching use, but also because the 
subject matter must be kept up to date and in keeping with 
changing practice. The lecturers should be practical ex- 
perts in each particular field as well as acceptable teachers. 

Closely related to Accountancy is Commercial Law. 
Commercial Law should, of course, be understood by every 
business man, not because he expects to become a practi- 
tioner of law but because he wishes to avoid unnecessary 
disputes and to shape his course wisely from a legal stand- 
point in dealing with his employees, his business associates, 
and his customers. 

There are various methods of teaching Commercial Law. 
The one which has been in vogue thus far has been the 
textbook method, in which the principles of law of interest 
to the business man are set forth. Lessons are assigned in 
the book, and recitations are held. The lecture method 
also is advocated. In some universities which have both 
law schools and schools of commerce, the commercial 
students receive lectures in the school of law in such sub- 
jects as contracts, agencies, insurance, etc. It seems to the 
writer that neither of these practices is desirable but that 
the proper way to teach Commercial Law to the commercial 
students is the case method, in which the principles of law 
of interest to the business man are developed from an ex- 
amination of actual cases of business litigation. We may 



Business Education 571 

very likely look forward to the publication of case books 
which can be used either alone or in conjunction with text- 
books on legal principles. Lectures on law to commercial 
students should be reduced to a minimum, and then they 
should confine themselves to very broad principles which 
need no lengthy exposition or to fields in which the students 
may be expected to have a general grasp but. no very de- 
tailed knowledge. But such subjects as contracts, agency, 
bankruptcy, sales, insurance, negotiable instruments, and 
forms of business association should be taught thoroughly 
to the student in the classroom through the case method, in 
which each case is fully discussed by the class and from 
which discussion legal principles are evolved. It is inter- 
esting to note that the states which stand highest in the 
matter of Certified Public Accountancy licenses are requir- 
ing very thorough preparation in law. To meet such re- 
quirements a course in law covering at least three semesters, 
three hours a week, with a case method is certainly neces- 
sary. 

The modern languages taught in schools of commerce 
should be by the direct method, and always with the voca- 
tional end clearly before the student. Actual business tran- 
sactions, such as selling to a foreign customer in the foreign 
language, correspondence, newspapers, catalogues and other 
documents of business, should be the supplementary reading 
and exercise material of the class. Facility in conversation 
and writing should be developed as rapidly as possible, and 
the grasp of the methodical rules should follow. It would 
probably be presumptuous to take a strong position here on 
the question of teaching modern languages, but experience 
with commercial students has clearly indicated that greatest 
progress can be made if the language is taught by a con- 
versation or direct method from the very start, and if 
paradigms and rules of syntax are evolved after some vocab- 
ulary has been developed and some facility in speech has 
been acquired. We may say here, incidentally, that it seems 
wise to teach the spoken language for a while before taking 



572 College Teaching 

up the problem of the written language, especially where 
the foreign language assigns different phonetic values to 
the printed symbols from those assigned in English. 

While the various technical subjects offer different prob- 
lems because of differences in their character, we may say 
in general that the aim of the school should always be to 
keep in touch with the actual practice in the business world; 
to have the lecturer use material which is up to the minute, 
and, where possible, to give the students the advantage of 
field work or at least to take them on tours of inspection 
in the different houses engaged in this or that line of busi- 
ness. 

The curriculum of any good commercial college or 
university department of business includes courses in Eco- 
nomics, Commercial Geography, Industrial History, Busi- 
ness Management, and similar subjects. No doubt other 
chapters of this book discuss methods of teaching these 
subjects. But it may not be out of place here to indicate 
that the best approach to the study of Economics is through 
practical business courses in Accountancy, Commercial 
Law, and Practical Management. Economics is the Philos- 
ophy of Business, and it cannot be understood by one who 
is unfamiliar with the facts of business. Certainly it can- 
not be related to real business life by the academic student. 
It would seem, therefore, best to reserve the course in 
Economic Theory for the senior year of a business course 
and precede it with courses in Accounting, Law, Indus- 
trial History, and Management. Then, when it is taught, 
it should be presented through practical problems from 
which the general principles may, by induction, be 
derived. 
Relations It jg important that commercial education should not 

business grow academic and remote from the real world of affairs. 
*" "'^ Therefore schools of business should keep in close contact 

with merchants' associations, chambers of commerce, and 
such other bodies of business men as may be in the neighbor- 
hood of the school. Committees from such associations 
should have either a voice in the conduct of the school, or 



world 



Business Education 573 

at least have very strong advisory representation on com- 
mittees. In France, Germany, and in fact most European 
countries, colleges of commerce were directly established by 
chambers of commerce and associations of merchants, and 
the work is to a large extent conducted under their direc- 
tion. Whether the college of commerce in America be a 
private institution or one supported by the public, it should 
form some sympathetic contact with the leading business 
organizations. Of course certain business associations 
have their own technical schools of training. The Ameri- 
can Bankers' Association conducts its own courses, drawing 
upon various universities for lecturers in some subjects and 
drawing upon experts in business for other kinds of techni- 
cal work. So also various corporations have their corpora- 
tion schools which seek to develop business executives by 
proajressive courses of training for those in the lower ranks. 
Nevertheless, the collegiate institutions offering organized 
courses in commerce will do well to keep in touch with 
business men. Another way in which such schools and 
colleges can keep abreast of the times is to employ lecturers 
who do not make teaching their main business of life but 
who are expert in certain particular fields. Indeed, it is 
almost impossible to teach certain of the very advanced and 
specialized courses without employing men of this sort. 
They are attracted to teaching not by the pay but by the 
honor of being connected with an institution of learning, 
and by sincere desire to contribute something to the de- 
velopment of the work in which they are interested. These 
men, of course, can be scheduled only for a relatively few 
hours a week, and sometimes they can be had only for 
evening lectures, but in any event they are very much worth 
while. Obviously the director of studies in the college 
should give these men all possible assistance of a peda- 
gogical sort, so that their advantages as experts in business 
will not be offset by deficiencies as teachers. 

This brings us to another consideration which is very Evening 
T 1 • 1 1 . 1 1 . . work in 

important, it seems to the writer that the ideal training commercial 

for a student who has reached the stage of entrance to '^°'^"®^ 



574< College Teaching 



college and who wishes to go into business is as follows: 
He should enroll in the college course which is prepara- 
tory for business training and pursue his modern languages, 
Mathematics, English, and the Social Sciences, and also 
take up such accounting and technical work as he can have 
the first two years of his course. Then he should enter 
the world of business itself, be in a business house during 
the day, and continue his studies at night. It seems very 
desirable that this parallel progress, in organized theory and 
instruction, on the one hand, and in actual business with 
its diflBculties which arise almost haphazard, should be car- 
ried on. The relationship is very helpful. Of course a 
substitute for this is the cooperative plan, in which the 
student spends a part of his time in college and a part of 
the time in a business house. Another alternative in in- 
stitutions which have the three-term year is to put two 
terms in at college and one term in at business. The cal- 
endar arrangement of any institution will suggest variations 
of this suggested arrangement, the purpose of which will be 
to insure progressive development in business practice and 
also in collegiate instruction. 
Hecentde- Jt jg to be noticed that in the last few years business 

has become more and more intense. The developments are 
in two directions. The first direction is saving and effi- 
ciency through organization. This tends to keep down 
cost. The other direction is in the stimulation of the market 
and in perfecting advertising and selling methods. Nat- 
urally there have been developments in the recording, ac- 
counting, and clerical ends of the business, but scientific 
management in production on the one hand, and scientific 
selling on the other, are the two great developments. In 
both, engineering plays a prominent part and dictates a 
close correlation of the business and the engineering cur- 
ricula of a college or university seeking to give most ef- 
fective training either to the student of business or the 
student of engineering. On the selling side we are having 
the further developments which come with the growth of 
foreign trade. 



Business Education 575 

In order to meet the demand for men competent to organ- 
ize production wisely and from a business viewpoint, more 
courses will be given in what we may call production man- 
agement or commercial engineering. Furthermore, the 
sales engineer must be trained. The curriculum of the 
course of collegiate grade should be made up somewhat as 
follows: 

A two years' prescribed course in the general sciences and 
in general principles of business, followed by a two or 
three year curriculum in technical business management, on 
the one hand, including especially accounting, cost account- 
ing, w^age systems, employment management, and some 
branch of engineering on the other hand. The engineering 
course should be general but thorough. It should not go 
up into specialized fields of design, but it should include 
all the fundamental courses of engineering — of mechanical, 
electrical, and civil engineering. A combination course in 
engineering and business management is needed also to pre- 
pare men for places in banks as investment managers. 
The banks must advance funds to industrial concerns, and 
such loans cannot be made wisely save upon the advice of 
one who is thoroughly acquainted with plant management, 
equipment, and mechanical operations as well as costs of 
production and market possibilities. In addition, such a 
man must be well acquainted with systems of accounting 
and methods of preparing financial statements. In the field 
of salesmanship, engineering training is growing in im- 
portance. In short, the highly organized state of modern 
production and the tremendous part played by engineering 
in modern industry indicate the need for a close coordina- 
tion of business and engineering education. 

In conclusion we may say that business education is now 
at the stage where it has its own technology, is in close 
touch with other fields of technology, and is making its 
contribution to the general fund of modern culture. Texts 
and scientific treatises in the field of business are increas- 
ing, the pedagogy of the various included subiects is re- 
ceiving satisfactory attention, and schools of collegiate and 



576 College Teaching 

university grade are keeping abreast of the demands of 
the business world for adequate general and specific train- 
ing in business. 

Frederick B. Robinson 

College of the City of New York 



Bibliography 

CooLEY, E. G. Vocational Education in Europe. Commercial Club 
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 1912. Chapters on Vocational Edu- 
cation in General, Commercial Schools, and the Conclusion. 

Farrington, F. E. Commercial Education in Germany. The Mac- 
millan Company, 1914. 

Herrick, C. a. Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education, 
and other works in the Macmillan Commercial Series, 1904. There 
is an excellent bibliography on the whole subject of commercial 
education as an appendix to Herrick's Commercial Education,. 

Hooper, Frederick, and Graham, James. Commercial Education 
at Home and Abroad. The Macmillan Company, 1901. 

There are numerous contributions on particular aspects and general 
methods and special methods in commercial subjects. The best 
printed bibliography of these is in the back of Herrick's book. 
A typical work on methods is Klein and Kahn's Methods in Com- 
mercial Education. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Accountancy. See Business Edu- 
cation 
Adapting course of study, 95-97, 

202, 244, 480, 572 
Adler, Felix, 323, 325 
Esthetic aim, in teaching, 52, 

92; in music, 470 
Aims, in teaching, 48-54; modi- 
fied for different students, 54; 
in organization of knowledge, 
65; in teaching biology, 88- 
94; in teaching mathematics, 
172; in physical education, 
184-190; in teaching econom- 
ics, 217-220 ; in teaching Amer- 
ican history, 218; in teaching 
political science, 282-287; in 
teaching philosophy, 304; in 
teaching ethics, 320-328; in 
teaching psychology, 337; in 
teaching English literature, 
380-384, 422-423; in teaching 
classics, 405; in teaching Ro- 
mance languages, 426-427; in 
teaching music, 460-462, 467; 
of art instruction, 478; in 
teaching engineering subjects, 
508-511; in teaching mechan- 
ical drawing, 525-527; in 
business education, 559. See 
Civic, Disciplinary, Utilitarian 

Allen, J. T., 411 

Angell, J. B., 30 

Application of knowledge, 72 

Art, 475-497 

Art instruction, 475 

Athletics. See Physical educa- 
tion 

Author's life, in literary study, 
385 

Biological basis of education, 85- 

87, 94, 364 
Biology, 85-109 



579 



Brown, E. E., 358 
Brown University, 5 
Business education, 555-577 
Butler, N. M., 30, 404 

Calkins, Mary W., 339 
Canby, H. S., 42 
Case method, in political science, 
292; in philosophy, 316; in 
ethics, 329; in psychology, 
338-340; in commercial law, 
572-573 
Cattell, J. M., 30 
Chemistry, 108-125 
Chronological viewpoint in his- 
tory, 257 
Citizenship, training for, 282 
Civic aim in economics, 219 
Classics, 404-423; in Colonial 
colleges, 5-6; status in college 
teaching, 404; through the 
vernacular, 418; through an- 
cient authors, 421 
Coeducation, 18-21 
College teaching, why ineffective, 

46-48 
Collegiate Institute, 4 
Colonial period, 3 
Columbia University, 5, 8 
Commercial education. See Busi- 
ness education 
Commercial law, 571-572 
Committee on standards of Amer- 
ican universities, 42 
Comparisons in teaching, 70 
Composition and journalism, 546 
Composition teaching, status of, 

390. See English 
Correlation, 70, 151, 156-157, 

297, 295-297, 314 
Course of study, 477, 481-485, 
486^90; in biology, 95-98; 
logical and psychological, 103; 
in chemistry, 111; in physics, 



580 



Index 



134-137, 138-139; in geology, 
153-156, 158; in hygiene and 
physical training, 206; in eco- 
nomics, 225; in sociology, 244- 
246; determined by commu- 
nity, 246; in American history, 
259-262; in European history, 
269-276; in political science, 
280-281; in philosophy, 312- 
314; in education, 353; in 
English literature, 386; in 
classics, 410; in Romance lan- 
guages, 431-436; in German, 
442-453; in engineering, 502- 
504; in mechanical drawing, 
526-530; in business educa- 
tion, 559-567 
Cultural aim, 220, 336, 348, 382- 
384 

Dartmouth College Case and 
college development, 8-9 

Democracy, 259 

Descriptive geometry, 530 

Design in engineering, 517 

Development method, 73, 75-76. 
See Recitation 

Dewey, J., 362-364 

Dexter, E. G., 30, 355 

Differentiated courses, 504-508 

Direct method, 444 

Disciplinary aim, 51-52; in 
physics, 126-127; in geology, 
143-150; in history, 264; in 
psychology, 336; in education, 
349; in literature, 382-384; in 
Romance languages, 424; in 
music, 467-468 

Draper, A. S., 30 

Duggan, S. P., 353 

Economic viewpoint in history, 

257 
Economics, 58, 217-240 
Education as college subject, 

347-376 



Educational and instructional 
aim, 50-51 

Elective system, 11-14 

Elementary language courses as 
college courses, 426 

Eliot, Charles W., 11 

Emotional reaction in literature, 
384 

Engineering subjects, 501-524 

English, teaching of, 49, 379- 
388, 389-403. 5ee Composi- 
tion, Literature 

Equipment for art instruction, 
490 

Ethics, 320-333 

Evening session for business edu- 
cation, 573 

Examination, 80. See Tests 

Experimental work in psychol- 
ogy, 342. See Laboratory 
method 

Expressional limitations of col- 
lege students, 545 

Field work, 254, 298, 517 

Finance, teaching of. See Busi- 
ness education 

Flexner, A., 30, 42 

Foster, W. T., 30 

Functional aspect in teaching, 
292 

Geology, 142-160 
German, 440-453 
German influence on American 

college, 14 
Gradation of subject matter, 56, 

387 
Graduate schools, 14-15 
Graves, 353 

Habits, 91, 199. See Aims, Dis- 
ciplinary aim 
Handschin, C. H., 42 
Harper, W. R., 30 
Hart, 355 
Harvard, 3 



Index 



581 



Health instruction, 197. See 
Physical education 

Heuristic method. See Develop- 
ment method, Recitation 

High school preparation, in phys- 
ical education, 190; in music, 
469, 485 

History, of American college, 3; 
of college mathematics, 167; 
of sociology, 241; of music as 
college subject, 357; of teach- 
ing of journalism, 533-539; of 
business education in the col- 
lege, 555-557 

Holliday, C, 42 

Home, H. H., 36, 42 

Illustrations, 243 
Immigration and status of Eng- 
lish teaching, 394 
Informal aim in teaching, 51 
Informal examination, 308 
Introductory course, in ethics, 
328; in political science, 288, 
298; in philosophy, 307, 315; 
in psychology, 334; in mechan- 
ical drawing, 527-528 

Jefferson and founding of Ameri- 
can college, 7 

Johns Hopkins University, 32 

Journalism as college subject, 
24, 533-554 

Junior college, 26-27 

King's College, 5 
Kingsley, C. D., 30 

Laboratory method, 73, 78; in 
chemistry, 62, 114; in biology, 
99; in physics, 132; in geology, 
157; in psychology, 343; in en- 
gineering, 516 

Language as index of mentality, 
388 



Law, 17; commercial, 571-572 

Lecture method, 73; in chemis- 
try, 113-114; in physics, 131, 
133; in mathematics, 175; in 
economics, 227, 231-235; in 
sociology, 242; in history, 260, 
265; in philosophy, 308-310; 
in psychology, 340-341; in 
classics, 419-421; in engineer- 
ing, 511-513; in commercial 
education, 568-572 

Length of periods in account- 
ancy, 569 

Literary analysis, 386 

Literary appreciation, 380. See 
Aims, Cultural, iEsthetic 

Literary style, 386 

Literature and the classics, 407- 
408, 415. See English 

Logical association, 63-64 

MacLean, G. E., 30 

Mathematics, 59, 161-182 

Mechanical drawing, 525-532 

Medicine, 17 

Mental development and acquisi- 
tion of language, 388 

Methods of teaching conditioned 
by aims, 98. See Aims 

Mezes, S. E., 48 

Modern languages, when intro- 
duced, 7; in business educa- 
tion, 571 

Modern literature and the clas- 
sics, 412 

Monroe, P., 353 

Morrill Act, 10 

Motivation in teaching, 55-56 

Municipal research, 298. See 
Laboratory method. Sociology, 
Political science 

Music in secondary schools, 465 

Natural method in classics, 411, 

416-417 
Newspaper English, 541-542 



582 



Index 



Non-sectarianism in American 

colleges, 7 
Notebook of students, 356 

Oberlin and coeducation, 20 

Oral composition in German, 447 
• Oral reading and English liter- 
ature, 384 

Ordinance of 1787, 9 

Organization of subject matter, 
62-66 

Outlines in biology, 102 

Parker, S. C, 355 

Pennsylvania University, 4 

Philosophy, 57, 70-71, 123, 127, 
302-319 

Physical education, 22, 183-314 

Physics, 126-141 

Pitkin, W. B., 46-50 

Place in curriculum, of political 
science, 287; of ethics, 328; 
of psychology, 334, 344; of his- 
tory of education, 351 ; of edu- 
cational theory, 359; of Ger- 
man, 440 ; of art education, 475 

Point of contact in teaching, 57- 
62 

Political science, 279-301 

Preparatory training, in chemis- 
try, 109; in physics, 129; in 
mathematics, 164, 176-178; in 
physical education, 190; in 
German, 448; for journalism, 
549 

Problem method, in economics, 
228, 231-235; in sociology, 
248-251 

Professional preparation, for 
women, 20; through political 
science, 283 

Prose composition and the clas- 
sics, 414 
Psychology, 57, 334-346, 364 
Public service, training for, 284 

Quiz, how to conduct, 118 



Recitation, 118, 174, 513-516, 
568-572 

Reduction of college course, 27 

Reference reading, 73, 76, 267, 
514 

Relating course to students, 128, 
370; in chemistry, 120; in so- 
ciology, 245; in philosophy, 
309; in ethics, 321-327, 331- 
332; in psychology, 338; in 
music, 459; in business educa- 
tion, 572. See Adapting course 
of study 

Relative importance in organiza- 
tion of knowledge, 64 

Religious character of American 
college, 5-7, 22 

Reporting, teaching art of, 547 

Research, 285. See Reference 
reading. Problem method. 
Seminar 

Research scholars as teachers, 
105-106, 124, 137, 178 

Robinson, M. L., 42 

Romance languages, 424-428 

Scholarship as preparation for 

teaching, 38 
Science, teaching of, 61-64; 

place of, in journalism course, 

552 
Scientific methods, in political 

science, 298; in psychology, 

343 
Scope of course in educational 

theory, 361 
Self-activity, 72 
Self-government, 24 
Seminar, 76 
Senior college, 26-28 
Sequence of courses in political 

science, 289 
Skill to be developed in biology, 

90 
Smith, F. W., 55 
Snow, L. F., 30 
Social museum, the, 254 



Index 



583 



Social sciences, place in journal- 
ism course, 550 

Sociology, 241-255 

Socratic method. 5ee Recita- 
tion, Development method 

Stanley, A. A., 465 

Student Army Training Corps, 
335 

Summaries in teaching, 66 

Teacher, as scholar, 105. See 
Research, Teacher training 

Teacher training, 18, 31, 37-39, 
256-257, 436, 468-470 

Technical subjects in college cur- 
riculum, 16, 25-26, 479, 504- 
508 

Technique, as aim in teaching, 
52 

Testing results of instruction, 
136; in economics, 244; in 
history, 261, 268; in psychol- 
ogy, 343; in music, 473; in 
art, 493-^96; in engineering 
subjects, 519-522 

Textbook, in geology, 158; in 
mathematics, 179; in econom- 
ics, 228, 231-235; in sociology, 
253; in history, 259; in ethics, 
330 

Theology, in separate school, 16 



Thoroughness, 66-72, 104 

Thwing, C. F., 30 

Time to be given to subjects, 
345, 486. See Place in cur- 
riculum 

Topical method in history, 266 

Types of instruction, 396-398 

Undergraduate and graduate 
teaching, 388 

Unified courses, 59, 302 

Utilitarian aim, 217; of physics, 
126; of geology, 142; of politi- 
cal science, 286; of psychology, 
337; of history of education, 
348 

Values, 355. See Aims 
Vernacular, in teaching German, 

445 
Viewpoint in teaching, a new, 69 
Virginia, University of, 7 

West, A. F., 30 

William and Mary, 4 

Wolfe, A. B., 36, 42 

Women, education of, 18-21. 
See Coeducation 

World War, effect on curricu- 
lum, 183 

Yale, 4 



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